<p>Global, high-resolution satellite imagery from Google is now the default satellite imagery option on the GFW map. Other satellite imagery options, including Planet, Landsat and Sentinel-2, are also available and you can view them by going to the dropdown menu under &#8220;Google Satellite Imagery&#8221; in the map legend. <a href="https://gfw.global/4i17fDF">Explore Google imagery on the map</a>.</p>


Google Satellite Imagery is Now Default on GFW

Users In Action

Hear stories from the forest defenders working in the field.

Users In Action | Global Forest Watch Blog

Biodiversity

Biodiversity | Global Forest Watch Blog

forest quality

forest quality | Global Forest Watch Blog

mexico

mexico | Global Forest Watch Blog

Stephanie Borcea

Eligio García Serrano

Ramón Guadarrama León

Salvador Huitrón García

Elizabeth Espinoza Hernández

Fernanda González Kohrs

Erick Noé Huitrón García

<p>Every fall, one of the planet’s most extraordinary natural spectacles occurs amid the fir forests of central Mexico: Millions of monarch butterflies land here to find respite from the cooling winter temperatures in northeastern U.S. and Canada for their annual hibernation. It is a phenomenon that the <a href="https://monarchconservation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monarch Butterfly Fund</a> affectionately refers to as “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kDmKBvztIbk&t=1s" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the arrival of the sun’s daughters</a>.” The sight is both visually splendid and culturally important to the people of Mexico. Several myths surround this phenomenon, <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/our-priorities/tackle-climate-change/climate-change-stories/monarch-butterflies-us-mexico/#:~:text=As%20pollinators%2C%20the%20monarch%20butterfly,enjoy%2C%20like%20squash%20and%20blueberries" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">such as beliefs that monarch butterflies are returning souls of loved ones</a>. &nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="1323" height="1600" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/SANTUARIO_MONARCA_HERRADA_SHG.jpeg" alt="" class="wp-image-18600" srcset="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/SANTUARIO_MONARCA_HERRADA_SHG.jpeg 1323w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/SANTUARIO_MONARCA_HERRADA_SHG-847x1024.jpeg 847w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/SANTUARIO_MONARCA_HERRADA_SHG-768x929.jpeg 768w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/SANTUARIO_MONARCA_HERRADA_SHG-1270x1536.jpeg 1270w" sizes="(max-width: 1323px) 100vw, 1323px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Monarch butterfly sanctuary “Piedra Herrada.” Credit: Salvador Huitrón García</figcaption></figure>



<p>This incredible event, a critical part of the monarchs’ life cycle, depends on Mexico’s forests. However, these forests are feeling the effects of global climate change. One of the effects is the rise of pests; a problem that is not unique to Mexico, forests pests are a growing threat in many other countries (for example, in 2024, WRI reported that forest pests are <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/europe-forest-loss-drivers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a growing threat to Europe’s forests</a>).  </p>



<p>To help tackle this issue in Mexico’s Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Global Forest Watch (GFW) Small Grants Fund recipient <a href="https://focenmexico.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neovolcanic Axis Conservation Fund (FOCEN)</a> has developed a novel approach, combining alerts on GFW’s Forest Watcher app and complementary technology like drones to monitor pests and inform actions to eradicate them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A new challenge for monarchs and monitoring: Forest pests</h2>



<p>FOCEN works regionally to create alliances for the conservation, restoration and responsible use of natural resources in central Mexico. Since 2000, FOCEN has worked to conserve the valuable forests in Mexico’s Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR), a <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/how-see-mexico-monarch-butterfly-migration#:~:text=Travelers%20can%20help%20protect%20these,on%20UNESCO's%20World%20Heritage%20list.&text=In%20one%20of%20the%20planet's,fir%20forests%20of%20Central%20Mexico" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>. Through the <a href="https://focenmexico.org/fondo-monarca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monarch Butterfly Conservation Fund (Monarch Fund)</a>, FOCEN has facilitated a scheme that provides economic incentives for the payment of ecosystem services to forest owners (ejidos — small landowners and Indigenous communities) across 12,367 hectares of forests, 91% of which are within MBBR’s core zone.</p>



<p>In 2021, after receiving a grant from GFW’s Small Grants Fund, FOCEN set out to address forest disturbance in the MBBR.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="1600" height="761" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MIRADOR_PENA_BLANCA_SHG.jpeg" alt="" class="wp-image-18601" srcset="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MIRADOR_PENA_BLANCA_SHG.jpeg 1600w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MIRADOR_PENA_BLANCA_SHG-1024x487.jpeg 1024w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MIRADOR_PENA_BLANCA_SHG-768x365.jpeg 768w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MIRADOR_PENA_BLANCA_SHG-1536x731.jpeg 1536w" sizes="(max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Peña Blanca viewpoint, “Sierra Chincua” monarch butterfly sanctuary. Credit: Salvador Huitrón García</figcaption></figure>



<p>While conducting initial field investigations using Forest Watcher to identify areas of degradation and create reports on their findings, they quickly discovered that the primary cause of forest degradation in the Reserve is forest pests, specifically bark beetles, which attack weakened trees. Worse, they discovered that the beetles are continuing to spread as temperatures and drought increase, threatening forest habitat that is critical for monarch butterfly migration and overwintering.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="1545" height="2000" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Imagen_Descortezadores_JL-Gallardo.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18602" srcset="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Imagen_Descortezadores_JL-Gallardo.png 1545w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Imagen_Descortezadores_JL-Gallardo-791x1024.png 791w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Imagen_Descortezadores_JL-Gallardo-768x994.png 768w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Imagen_Descortezadores_JL-Gallardo-1187x1536.png 1187w" sizes="(max-width: 1545px) 100vw, 1545px" /></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A new way to use Forest Watcher and monitoring tools</h2>



<p>FOCEN worked quickly to mobilize on this new finding. Teaming up with technical monitoring partner <a href="https://www.instagram.com/ambiomas_org/reels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ambiomas Acciones y Respuestas Adaptativas (Ambiomas)</a>, they adapted their project and set out to create an early warning system for monitoring forest pests and to develop capacity for using the system and monitoring the forest in a new way. &nbsp;</p>



<p>As a first step, FOCEN and Ambiomas recognized that engaging forest owners and community members living in and around the Reserve was essential. They created a comprehensive course with a corresponding manual and led a two-day intensive training event for 14 people on using Forest Watcher. Over the course of six months, community technicians from the participating ejidos and communities, with the support of Ambiomas and FOCEN, conducted more than 100 field visits and produced more than 1,000 reports on observations of forest degradation in the field. This provided the data needed to inform FOCEN’s development of an early warning system. &nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="1600" height="1200" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/CAPACITACION_TECNICOS_SHG.jpeg" alt="" class="wp-image-18603" srcset="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/CAPACITACION_TECNICOS_SHG.jpeg 1600w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/CAPACITACION_TECNICOS_SHG-1024x768.jpeg 1024w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/CAPACITACION_TECNICOS_SHG-768x576.jpeg 768w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/CAPACITACION_TECNICOS_SHG-1536x1152.jpeg 1536w" sizes="(max-width: 1600px) 100vw, 1600px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Training of community technicians from the Senguio ejido by the Ambiomas team. Credit: Salvador Huitrón García</figcaption></figure>



<p>Next, FOCEN and Ambiomas, with support from GFW and the Monarch Butterfly Fund, took a multi-pronged approach to creating the early warning system. Realizing the time commitment of ground patrols and the limitations of satellite imagery, they incorporated multispectral drone technology that can capture data in multiple wavelengths beyond the visible spectrum (red, green, blue) to complement field visits and provide high-resolution imagery of forest degradation that satellites cannot always capture.</p>



<p>They selected five watersheds to assess that had historical records of monarch butterfly hibernation and that are critical to communities. After conducting drone flights, they used a Tree Density Calculator algorithm (available as a QGIS plugin) that provides an estimate of the number of trees present in the study area and shows the coordinates of each tree, creating a forest inventory that includes each tree’s precise location. They then assessed vegetation health using a platform to interpret the multispectral drone imagery and by assessing high-resolution images.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="663" height="505" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Tree-Density-Calculator-fig.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18604"/></figure>



<p>Using the forest inventory, they performed a visual interpretation for each tree determined by the algorithm to have signs of disease, such as standing dead or dry trees and trees with dry tops. The identification criteria were based on the color and appearance of the tree.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="814" height="441" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Examples-of-dead-and-dry-trees-ENG.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18605" srcset="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Examples-of-dead-and-dry-trees-ENG.png 814w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Examples-of-dead-and-dry-trees-ENG-768x416.png 768w" sizes="(max-width: 814px) 100vw, 814px" /></figure>



<p>They compared this information with the reports generated during monitoring trips using Forest Watcher and found that the reports aligned with the visual interpretation of the images identified by the algorithm.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="1080" height="1080" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/FOCEN-English-v4.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18606" srcset="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/FOCEN-English-v4.png 1080w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/FOCEN-English-v4-1024x1024.png 1024w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/FOCEN-English-v4-300x300.png 300w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/FOCEN-English-v4-768x768.png 768w" sizes="(max-width: 1080px) 100vw, 1080px" /></figure>



<p>FOCEN and Ambiomas have now conducted multispectral drone flights for two consecutive years during the pre- and post-rainy season and at times of the year when monarchs are not present to determine the vitality of the fir trees and in order to have timely information on the possible presence of forest pests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Outcomes for improved pest monitoring and response </h2>



<p>Thanks to the early warning system, FOCEN, Ambiomas and communities have been able to take targeted action in controlling bark beetles — namely, removing infected trees and wood debris, in accordance with Mexican regulations for controlling and preventing beetle outbreaks. More monitoring is needed to determine whether the bark beetles are now contained, and local communities are currently conducting pest and forest disease monitoring surveys as part of FOCEN’s Best Management Practices Programs within their <a href="https://focenmexico.org/cuenca-sierra-chincua" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">payment for ecosystem services program</a>.</p>



<p>The combination of tools and practices used in the early warning system provides an important complement to field monitoring. It has helped ejidatarios (community landowners), community members and field technicians monitor larger areas and less accessible places faster and has allowed them to better understand their territory. Using the information collected, they have been able to implement conservation and restoration activities that are helping counteract the effects caused by forest pests.</p>



<p>Additionally, FOCEN and Ambiomas have developed a <a href="https://focenmexico.org/microcuencas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MapBuilder and Story Map</a> for each of the five watersheds crucial to monarch hibernation that they monitored throughout the project to aggregate and represent all the data generated, making it possible to conduct spatial analyses with this information.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="1430" height="678" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MapBuilder-screenshot.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-18607" srcset="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MapBuilder-screenshot.jpg 1430w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MapBuilder-screenshot-1024x486.jpg 1024w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MapBuilder-screenshot-768x364.jpg 768w" sizes="(max-width: 1430px) 100vw, 1430px" /><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">MapBuilder Application for the Nicolas Romero watershed. Source: FOCEN, 2022</figcaption></figure>



<p>FOCEN and Ambiomas also worked with the team at GFW to make several improvements to Forest Watcher such as improving the location accuracy of reports and the ability to directly link reports to MapBuilder, which will help others interested in monitoring for pests or using these tools for other applications in the future.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Adapting lessons for tackling forest pests around the world</h2>



<p>In October 2022, FOCEN convened a workshop with the Reserve’s community technicians, technical advisors and researchers from the Colegio de Geografía de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México to discuss the impact of climate change on forest degradation. As a next step for FOCEN and Ambiomas, greater funding is needed to allow the continuation of monitoring larger areas and to more accurately assess levels of forest degradation in the forests that monarchs depend on.</p>



<p>These impacts to forests and lessons learned are relevant for many geographies that are confronted with similar issues. FOCEN and Ambiomas found that, in addition to an early warning system to reduce response time to forest damage, early detection and monitoring activities are essential to prevent forest degradation from pests. This requires long-term aerial monitoring and strengthening the local capacities of forest owners, in coordination with the various stakeholders involved in the area.</p>



<p>As climate change continues to wreak havoc, less visible but damaging effects like forest pests are becoming more apparent. The issue of pests causing degradation is not isolated to Mexico, and others can learn from the technologies and approaches developed by FOCEN and Ambiomas and implement similar strategies in the areas that are experiencing similar challenges.</p>



<p><em>To learn more about FOCEN and Ambiomas’s work and their early warning system for forest pests, please contact </em><a href="mailto:eligio.garcia@focenmexico.org"><em>eligio.garcia@focenmexico.org</em></a><em> or </em><a href="mailto:ambiomasorg@gmail.co"><em>ambiomasorg@gmail.com</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<style type="text/css"></style>

A New Monitoring Challenge: Protecting Forests from Pests

<p>Every fall, one of the planet’s most extraordinary natural spectacles occurs amid the fir forests of central Mexico: Millions of monarch butterflies land here to find respite from the cooling winter temperatures in northeastern U.S. and Canada for their annual hibernation. It is a phenomenon that the <a href="https://monarchconservation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monarch Butterfly Fund</a> affectionately refers to as “<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kDmKBvztIbk&amp;t=1s" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">the arrival of the sun’s daughters</a>.” The sight is both visually splendid and culturally important to the people of Mexico. Several myths surround this phenomenon, <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/our-priorities/tackle-climate-change/climate-change-stories/monarch-butterflies-us-mexico/#:~:text=As%20pollinators%2C%20the%20monarch%20butterfly,enjoy%2C%20like%20squash%20and%20blueberries" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">such as beliefs that monarch butterflies are returning souls of loved ones</a>. &nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/SANTUARIO_MONARCA_HERRADA_SHG.jpeg" alt="" class="wp-image-18600"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Monarch butterfly sanctuary "Piedra Herrada." Credit: Salvador Huitrón García</figcaption></figure>



<p>This incredible event, a critical part of the monarchs’ life cycle, depends on Mexico’s forests. However, these forests are feeling the effects of global climate change. One of the effects is the rise of pests; a problem that is not unique to Mexico, forests pests are a growing threat in many other countries (for example, in 2024, WRI reported that forest pests are <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/europe-forest-loss-drivers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">a growing threat to Europe’s forests</a>).  </p>



<p>To help tackle this issue in Mexico’s Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve, Global Forest Watch (GFW) Small Grants Fund recipient <a href="https://focenmexico.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Neovolcanic Axis Conservation Fund (FOCEN)</a> has developed a novel approach, combining alerts on GFW’s Forest Watcher app and complementary technology like drones to monitor pests and inform actions to eradicate them.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A new challenge for monarchs and monitoring: Forest pests</h2>



<p>FOCEN works regionally to create alliances for the conservation, restoration and responsible use of natural resources in central Mexico. Since 2000, FOCEN has worked to conserve the valuable forests in Mexico’s Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve (MBBR), a <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/how-see-mexico-monarch-butterfly-migration#:~:text=Travelers%20can%20help%20protect%20these,on%20UNESCO's%20World%20Heritage%20list.&amp;text=In%20one%20of%20the%20planet's,fir%20forests%20of%20Central%20Mexico" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UNESCO World Heritage Site</a>. Through the <a href="https://focenmexico.org/fondo-monarca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monarch Butterfly Conservation Fund (Monarch Fund)</a>, FOCEN has facilitated a scheme that provides economic incentives for the payment of ecosystem services to forest owners (ejidos — small landowners and Indigenous communities) across 12,367 hectares of forests, 91% of which are within MBBR's core zone.</p>



<p>In 2021, after receiving a grant from GFW’s Small Grants Fund, FOCEN set out to address forest disturbance in the MBBR.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MIRADOR_PENA_BLANCA_SHG.jpeg" alt="" class="wp-image-18601"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Peña Blanca viewpoint, "Sierra Chincua" monarch butterfly sanctuary. Credit: Salvador Huitrón García</figcaption></figure>



<p>While conducting initial field investigations using Forest Watcher to identify areas of degradation and create reports on their findings, they quickly discovered that the primary cause of forest degradation in the Reserve is forest pests, specifically bark beetles, which attack weakened trees. Worse, they discovered that the beetles are continuing to spread as temperatures and drought increase, threatening forest habitat that is critical for monarch butterfly migration and overwintering.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Imagen_Descortezadores_JL-Gallardo.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18602"/></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">A new way to use Forest Watcher and monitoring tools</h2>



<p>FOCEN worked quickly to mobilize on this new finding. Teaming up with technical monitoring partner <a href="https://www.instagram.com/ambiomas_org/reels/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Ambiomas Acciones y Respuestas Adaptativas (Ambiomas)</a>, they adapted their project and set out to create an early warning system for monitoring forest pests and to develop capacity for using the system and monitoring the forest in a new way. &nbsp;</p>



<p>As a first step, FOCEN and Ambiomas recognized that engaging forest owners and community members living in and around the Reserve was essential. They created a comprehensive course with a corresponding manual and led a two-day intensive training event for 14 people on using Forest Watcher. Over the course of six months, community technicians from the participating ejidos and communities, with the support of Ambiomas and FOCEN, conducted more than 100 field visits and produced more than 1,000 reports on observations of forest degradation in the field. This provided the data needed to inform FOCEN’s development of an early warning system. &nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/CAPACITACION_TECNICOS_SHG.jpeg" alt="" class="wp-image-18603"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Training of community technicians from the Senguio ejido by the Ambiomas team. Credit: Salvador Huitrón García</figcaption></figure>



<p>Next, FOCEN and Ambiomas, with support from GFW and the Monarch Butterfly Fund, took a multi-pronged approach to creating the early warning system. Realizing the time commitment of ground patrols and the limitations of satellite imagery, they incorporated multispectral drone technology that can capture data in multiple wavelengths beyond the visible spectrum (red, green, blue) to complement field visits and provide high-resolution imagery of forest degradation that satellites cannot always capture.</p>



<p>They selected five watersheds to assess that had historical records of monarch butterfly hibernation and that are critical to communities. After conducting drone flights, they used a Tree Density Calculator algorithm (available as a QGIS plugin) that provides an estimate of the number of trees present in the study area and shows the coordinates of each tree, creating a forest inventory that includes each tree’s precise location. They then assessed vegetation health using a platform to interpret the multispectral drone imagery and by assessing high-resolution images.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Tree-Density-Calculator-fig.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18604"/></figure>



<p>Using the forest inventory, they performed a visual interpretation for each tree determined by the algorithm to have signs of disease, such as standing dead or dry trees and trees with dry tops. The identification criteria were based on the color and appearance of the tree.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Examples-of-dead-and-dry-trees-ENG.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18605"/></figure>



<p>They compared this information with the reports generated during monitoring trips using Forest Watcher and found that the reports aligned with the visual interpretation of the images identified by the algorithm.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/FOCEN-English-v4.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18606"/></figure>



<p>FOCEN and Ambiomas have now conducted multispectral drone flights for two consecutive years during the pre- and post-rainy season and at times of the year when monarchs are not present to determine the vitality of the fir trees and in order to have timely information on the possible presence of forest pests.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Outcomes for improved pest monitoring and response </h2>



<p>Thanks to the early warning system, FOCEN, Ambiomas and communities have been able to take targeted action in controlling bark beetles — namely, removing infected trees and wood debris, in accordance with Mexican regulations for controlling and preventing beetle outbreaks. More monitoring is needed to determine whether the bark beetles are now contained, and local communities are currently conducting pest and forest disease monitoring surveys as part of FOCEN’s Best Management Practices Programs within their <a href="https://focenmexico.org/cuenca-sierra-chincua" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">payment for ecosystem services program</a>.</p>



<p>The combination of tools and practices used in the early warning system provides an important complement to field monitoring. It has helped ejidatarios (community landowners), community members and field technicians monitor larger areas and less accessible places faster and has allowed them to better understand their territory. Using the information collected, they have been able to implement conservation and restoration activities that are helping counteract the effects caused by forest pests.</p>



<p>Additionally, FOCEN and Ambiomas have developed a <a href="https://focenmexico.org/microcuencas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MapBuilder and Story Map</a> for each of the five watersheds crucial to monarch hibernation that they monitored throughout the project to aggregate and represent all the data generated, making it possible to conduct spatial analyses with this information.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MapBuilder-screenshot.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-18607"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">MapBuilder Application for the Nicolas Romero watershed. Source: FOCEN, 2022</figcaption></figure>



<p>FOCEN and Ambiomas also worked with the team at GFW to make several improvements to Forest Watcher such as improving the location accuracy of reports and the ability to directly link reports to MapBuilder, which will help others interested in monitoring for pests or using these tools for other applications in the future.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Adapting lessons for tackling forest pests around the world</h2>



<p>In October 2022, FOCEN convened a workshop with the Reserve’s community technicians, technical advisors and researchers from the Colegio de Geografía de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México to discuss the impact of climate change on forest degradation. As a next step for FOCEN and Ambiomas, greater funding is needed to allow the continuation of monitoring larger areas and to more accurately assess levels of forest degradation in the forests that monarchs depend on.</p>



<p>These impacts to forests and lessons learned are relevant for many geographies that are confronted with similar issues. FOCEN and Ambiomas found that, in addition to an early warning system to reduce response time to forest damage, early detection and monitoring activities are essential to prevent forest degradation from pests. This requires long-term aerial monitoring and strengthening the local capacities of forest owners, in coordination with the various stakeholders involved in the area.</p>



<p>As climate change continues to wreak havoc, less visible but damaging effects like forest pests are becoming more apparent. The issue of pests causing degradation is not isolated to Mexico, and others can learn from the technologies and approaches developed by FOCEN and Ambiomas and implement similar strategies in the areas that are experiencing similar challenges.</p>



<p><em>To learn more about FOCEN and Ambiomas’s work and their early warning system for forest pests, please contact </em><a href="mailto:eligio.garcia@focenmexico.org"><em>eligio.garcia@focenmexico.org</em></a><em> or </em><a href="mailto:ambiomasorg@gmail.co"><em>ambiomasorg@gmail.com</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<style type="text/css"></style>

<p>Cada otoño, uno de los espectáculos naturales más extraordinarios del planeta tiene lugar entre los bosques de abetos (oyamel) del centro de México: Millones de mariposas monarca aterrizan aquí en busca de un respiro a las frías temperaturas invernales del noreste de EE.UU. y Canadá para su hibernación anual. Es un fenómeno al que el <a href="https://monarchconservation.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Monarch Butterfly Fund</a> se refiere cariñosamente como «<a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kDmKBvztIbk&amp;t=1s" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">la llegada de las hijas del sol</a>». El espectáculo es a la vez visualmente espléndido y culturalmente importante para el pueblo de México. Existen varios mitos en torno a este fenómeno, como <a href="https://www.nature.org/en-us/what-we-do/our-priorities/tackle-climate-change/climate-change-stories/monarch-butterflies-us-mexico/#:~:text=As%20pollinators%2C%20the%20monarch%20butterfly,enjoy%2C%20like%20squash%20and%20blueberries" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">la creencia de que las mariposas monarca son almas que regresan de seres queridos</a>. &nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/SANTUARIO_MONARCA_HERRADA_SHG.jpeg" alt="" class="wp-image-18600"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Santuario de la mariposa monarca «Piedra Herrada». Crédito: Salvador Huitrón García</figcaption></figure>



<p>Este increíble acontecimiento, parte fundamental del ciclo vital de las monarcas, depende de los bosques de México. Sin embargo, estos bosques están sintiendo los efectos del cambio climático global. Uno de los efectos es el aumento de plagas; un problema que no es exclusivo de México, las plagas forestales son una amenaza creciente en muchos otros países (por ejemplo, en 2024, WRI informó que las plagas forestales son una <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/europe-forest-loss-drivers" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">amenaza creciente para los bosques de Europa</a>).&nbsp;</p>



<p>Para ayudar a abordar este problema en la Reserva de la Biosfera de la Mariposa Monarca de México, <a href="https://focenmexico.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">El Fondo de Conservación del Eje Neovolcánico (FOCEN)</a>, beneficiario del Fondo de Pequeñas Suvenciones de Global Forest Watch (GFW), ha desarrollado un enfoque novedoso, combinando alertas en la aplicación Forest Watcher de GFW y tecnología complementaria como drones para monitorear las plagas e informar de las acciones para erradicarlas.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Un nuevo reto para las monarcas y su monitoreo: las plagas forestales</h2>



<p>FOCEN trabaja a escala regional para crear alianzas en favor de la conservación, la restauración y el uso responsable de los recursos naturales del centro de México. Desde 2000, FOCEN ha trabajado para conservar los valiosos bosques de la Reserva de la Biosfera Mariposa Monarca (RBMM) de México, declarada <a href="https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/how-see-mexico-monarch-butterfly-migration#:~:text=Travelers%20can%20help%20protect%20these,on%20UNESCO's%20World%20Heritage%20list.&amp;text=In%20one%20of%20the%20planet's,fir%20forests%20of%20Central%20Mexico" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Patrimonio de la Humanidad por la UNESCO</a>. A través del <a href="https://focenmexico.org/fondo-monarca" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Fondo para la Conservación de la Mariposa Monarca (Fondo Monarca)</a>, FOCEN ha facilitado un esquema que proporciona incentivos económicos para el pago de servicios ecosistémicos a los propietarios de bosques (ejidos - pequeños propietarios y comunidades indígenas) a lo largo de 12,367 hectáreas de bosques, 91% de los cuales se encuentran dentro de la zona núcleo de la RBMM.</p>



<p>En 2021, tras recibir una subvención del Fondo de Pequeñas Subvenciones de GFW, FOCEN se propuso abordar las alteraciones forestales en la RBMM.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MIRADOR_PENA_BLANCA_SHG.jpeg" alt="" class="wp-image-18601"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Mirador de Peña Blanca, santuario de la mariposa monarca «Sierra Chincua». Crédito: Salvador Huitrón García</figcaption></figure>



<p>Mientras realizaban las primeras investigaciones sobre el terreno utilizando Forest Watcher para identificar las zonas de degradación y elaborar informes sobre sus hallazgos, descubrieron rápidamente que la principal causa de degradación forestal en la Reserva son las plagas forestales, concretamente los escarabajos descortezador, que atacan a los árboles debilitados. Peor aún, descubrieron que los escarabajos siguen extendiéndose a medida que aumentan las temperaturas y la sequía, amenazando el hábitat forestal que es fundamental para la migración y la hibernación de la mariposa monarca.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ES-pests-fig.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18628"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Fuente: Gallardo S. J.L. 2023</figcaption></figure>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Una nueva forma de utilizar Forest Watcher y las herramientas de monitoreo</h2>



<p>FOCEN trabajó rápidamente para movilizarse ante este nuevo hallazgo. En colaboración con Ambiomas Acciones y Respuestas Adaptivas (Ambiomas), adaptaron su proyecto y se propusieron crear un sistema de alerta temprana para monitorear plagas forestales y desarrollar capacidades para utilizar el sistema y monitorear el bosque de una forma nueva.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Como primer paso, FOCEN y Ambiomas reconocieron que era esencial implicar a los propietarios de los bosques y a los miembros de las comunidades que viven en la Reserva y sus alrededores. Crearon un curso integral acompañado de un &nbsp;manual y organizaron un curso intensivo de dos días para capacitar a 14 personas en el uso de Forest Watcher. A lo largo de seis meses, técnicos comunitarios de los ejidos y comunidades participantes, con el apoyo de Ambiomas y FOCEN, realizaron más de 100 visitas de campo y elaboraron más de 1000 informes sobre observaciones de degradación forestal sobre el terreno. Esto proporcionó los datos necesarios para que FOCEN desarrollara un sistema de alerta temprana.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/CAPACITACION_TECNICOS_SHG.jpeg" alt="" class="wp-image-18603"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Capacitación de técnicos comunitarios del ejido de Senguio por el equipo de Ambiomas. Crédito: Salvador Huitrón García</figcaption></figure>



<p>A continuación, FOCEN y Ambiomas, con el apoyo de GFW y el Fondo de la Mariposa Monarca, adoptaron un enfoque múltiple para crear el sistema de alerta temprana. Conscientes del tiempo que requieren las patrullas terrestres y de las limitaciones de las imágenes por satélite, incorporaron drones con tecnología multiespectral, capaz de captar datos en múltiples longitudes de onda más allá del espectro visible (rojo, verde y azul) para complementar las visitas en campo y proporcionar imágenes de alta resolución de la degradación forestal que los satélites no siempre pueden captar.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Seleccionaron cinco cuencas hidrográficas con registros históricos de hibernación de la mariposa monarca y que son fundamentales para las comunidades. Tras realizar vuelos con drones, utilizaron un algoritmo de cálculo de densidad de árboles (<em>Tree Density Calculator, </em>disponible como complemento de QGIS) que proporciona una estimación del número de árboles presentes en el área de estudio y muestra las coordenadas de cada árbol, creando un inventario forestal que incluye la ubicación precisa de cada árbol. A continuación, evaluaron la salud de la vegetación utilizando una plataforma para interpretar las imágenes multiespectrales de los drones y evaluando imágenes de alta resolución.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/Tree-Density-Calculator-fig.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18604"/></figure>



<p>Utilizando el inventario forestal, realizaron una interpretación visual de cada árbol que el algoritmo determinaba que presentaba signos de enfermedad, como árboles muertos o secos en pie y árboles con copas secas. Los criterios de identificación se basaron en el color y el aspecto del árbol.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/ES-dead-trees-fig.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18631"/></figure>



<p>Compararon esta información con los informes generados durante los viajes de monitoreo con Forest Watcher y comprobaron que los informes coincidían con la interpretación visual de las imágenes identificadas por el algoritmo.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/FOCEN-Spanish-v6.png" alt="" class="wp-image-18632"/></figure>



<p>FOCEN y Ambiomas llevan dos años consecutivos realizando vuelos multiespectrales con drones durante la época anterior y posterior a las lluvias, así como en épocas del año en las que no hay monarcas para determinar la vitalidad de los oyameles y poder disponer de información puntual sobre la posible presencia de plagas forestales.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Resultados para un mejor monitoreo y la respuesta ante plagas&nbsp; </h2>



<p>Gracias al sistema de alerta temprana, FOCEN, Ambiomas y las comunidades han podido tomar medidas específicas para controlar los escarabajos descortezadores,concretamente, retirar los árboles infectados y los restos de madera, de acuerdo con la normativa mexicana para controlar y prevenir los brotes de escarabajos. Se necesita más monitoreo para determinar si los escarabajos descortezadores están ahora contenidos y las comunidades locales están llevando a cabo actualmente encuestas de monitoreo de plagas y enfermedades forestales como parte de los Programas de Mejores Prácticas de Gestión de FOCEN dentro de su <a href="https://focenmexico.org/cuenca-sierra-chincua" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">programa de pago por servicios ecosistémicos</a>.</p>



<p>El conjunto de herramientas y prácticas utilizadas en el sistema de alerta temprana constituye un complemento importante a la vigilancia en campo. Ha ayudado a los ejidatarios, a los miembros de la comunidad y a los técnicos de campo a vigilar más rápidamente zonas más extensas y lugares menos accesibles y les ha permitido conocer mejor su territorio. Con la información recopilada, han podido poner en marcha actividades de conservación y restauración que están ayudando a contrarrestar los efectos causados por las plagas forestales.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Además, FOCEN y Ambiomas han desarrollado un <a href="https://focenmexico.org/microcuencas" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">MapBuilder y un Story Map</a> para cada una de las cinco cuencas hidrográficas que son cruciales para la hibernación de las monarcas y que monitorearon a lo largo del proyecto. En ellos, agregaron y representaron todos los datos generados, haciendo posible realizar análisis espaciales con esta información.&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/MapBuilder-screenshot.jpg" alt="" class="wp-image-18607"/><figcaption class="wp-element-caption">Aplicación MapBuilder para la cuenca Nicolas Romero. Fuente: FOCEN, 2022</figcaption></figure>



<p>FOCEN and Ambiomas also worked with the team at GFW to make several improvements to Forest Watcher such as improving the location accuracy of reports and the ability to directly link reports to MapBuilder, which will help others interested in monitoring for pests or using these tools for other applications in the future.</p>



<p>FOCEN y Ambiomas también trabajaron con el equipo de GFW para introducir varias mejoras en Forest Watcher, como mejorar la precisión de la ubicación de los informes y la posibilidad de vincular directamente los informes a MapBuilder, lo que ayudará a otras personas interesadas en la vigilancia de plagas o en utilizar estas herramientas para otras aplicaciones en el futuro.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Adaptar las enseñanzas para combatir las plagas forestales en todo el mundo</h2>



<p>En octubre de 2022, FOCEN convocó a un taller con los técnicos comunitarios de la Reserva, asesores técnicos e investigadores del Colegio de Geografía de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México para discutir el impacto del cambio climático en la degradación forestal. Como un siguiente paso para FOCEN y Ambiomas, se necesita mayor financiamiento que permita continuar con el monitoreo de áreas más extensas y evaluar con mayor precisión los niveles de degradación forestal en los bosques de los que dependen las monarcas.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Estos impactos en los bosques y las lecciones aprendidas son relevantes para muchas geografías que se enfrentan a problemas similares. FOCEN y Ambiomas descubrieron que, además de un sistema de alerta temprana para reducir el tiempo de respuesta a los daños forestales, las actividades de detección temprana y seguimiento son esenciales para prevenir la degradación de los bosques a causa de las plagas. Para ello es necesario realizar un monitoreo aéreo a largo plazo y reforzar las capacidades locales de los propietarios forestales, en coordinación con las distintas partes interesadas de la zona.&nbsp;</p>



<p>A medida que el cambio climático sigue causando estragos, los efectos menos visibles pero perjudiciales, como las plagas forestales, son cada vez más evidentes. El problema de las plagas que causan degradación no es exclusivo de México, y otros pueden aprender de las tecnologías y los enfoques desarrollados por FOCEN y Ambiomas y aplicar estrategias similares en las zonas que están experimentando retos parecidos.</p>



<p><em>Si desea más información sobre el trabajo de FOCEN y Ambiomas y su sistema de alerta temprana de plagas forestales, póngase en contacto con </em><a href="mailto:eligio.garcia@focenmexico.org"><em>eligio.garcia@focenmexico.org</em></a><em> o </em><a href="mailto:ambiomasorg@gmail.com"><em>ambiomasorg@gmail.com</em></a><em>.</em></p>



<style type="text/css"></style>

Un nuevo reto de monitoreo: Proteger los bosques de las plagas

GFW partner FOCEN is using a novel monitoring approach to tackle increasing forest pests in in Mexico’s Monarch Butterfly Biosphere Reserve.

Comment

Global Forest Watch Content

https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/gfwGlobal.png

https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/be19f67e91ba81d93d32ae47706dcbb8?s=96&d=mm&r=g

Paige Johnson

Side by side comparison of UMD tree cover loss and JRC Tropical Moist Forest data

Data &amp; Tools

Data &amp; Tools | Global Forest Watch Blog

deforestation

deforestation | Global Forest Watch Blog

forest change

forest change | Global Forest Watch Blog

mapping

mapping | Global Forest Watch Blog

Michelle Sims

Peter Potapov

Christelle Vancutsem

Clément Bourgoin

Fréderic Achard

Sarah Carter

<p>The wide availability of forest and land cover maps based on satellite data provides more information on the world’s forests than ever before. However, this plethora of information can also be challenging for people trying to understand differences in data sources and decide which data to use for a specific purpose.</p>



<p>In the past, we’ve compared the <a href="https://gfw.global/3BfwQWz">annual tree cover loss data</a> from the University of Maryland (UMD) and available on Global Forest Watch (GFW) with national data from <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/data-and-research/2022-tree-cover-loss-data-explained/">Brazil and Indonesia</a>, as well as with data from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/data-and-research/global-forest-watch-and-the-forest-resources-assessment-explained-in-5-graphics-2/">Global Forest Resources Assessment</a>, to shed light on some of these differences.</p>



<p>Another data set that tracks forest change in the tropics is the <a href="https://forobs.jrc.ec.europa.eu/TMF" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tropical Moist Forest (TMF) data set</a> from the European Commission Joint Research Centre (JRC). Like the UMD tree cover loss data, the JRC TMF data is based on Landsat satellite imagery and is updated annually. Yet while both data sets map forest disturbances, the maps and numbers look a little different.</p>



<p>In this blog, we explain some key differences in the definitions and methods used for each data set that impact the resulting maps and discuss how the disturbances mapped by both data sets compare (while the data sets also map forest gain or regrowth, this blog focuses on comparing their mapping of forest disturbances). While understanding these differences can help determine the contexts for which each data set might be useful, note that this analysis does not evaluate the quality or accuracy of either data set.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What areas do the JRC and UMD data sets cover, and how do they define forests?</h2>



<p>The UMD data set maps forests globally based on <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1244693" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree cover extent</a> in 2000. <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1244693" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tree cover</a> is defined as woody vegetation with a minimum height of at least five meters at 30-meter resolution, which includes all types of tree cover — including natural or managed forest and plantations — and is not limited to a specific forest type. The GFW map shows tree cover with a 30% canopy density, which we use in our analyses and in this comparison, although users can adjust the threshold based on their needs.</p>



<p>The JRC data set, on the other hand, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abe1603" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maps forests</a> beginning in 1990. The data includes all closed primary and secondary forests in the humid tropics and does not apply a minimum height or canopy density threshold to delineate forest extent.</p>



<p>As a result of these definitional differences, some areas included in the 2000 UMD tree cover extent in the tropics like dry forests, young secondary forests and plantations are not classified as forests in the JRC data set in 2000 — a total of 655 million hectares (Mha), or 34%, of the UMD tree cover extent area that overlaps with the JRC data. Likewise, the JRC forest extent in 2000 includes some areas that do not meet the height and 30% canopy density threshold in the UMD data or are otherwise not mapped as tree cover by the UMD data — 17.2 Mha, or 1% of the JRC forest extent.</p>



<p>Because of the differences in geographic coverage and scope between the two data sets, this blog only compares forest disturbances from 2001-2022 for areas that, in the year 2000, are mapped both as tree cover by UMD and as forest by JRC.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What types of forest disturbances do the UMD and JRC data map?</h2>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><em>The JRC Tropical Moist Forest data set maps degradation and deforestation in the humid tropics</em></h3>



<p>The JRC TMF data set maps disturbances to tropical moist forests — including degradation and deforestation — from 1990 to 2022. The JRC team maps these changes using an algorithm that detects forest disruptions, meaning an absence of tree foliage cover within a 30-meter pixel for each available Landsat image, and then classifies the status of forest based on how long these disruptions are visible.</p>



<p>The TMF data set <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abe1603" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defines degradation</a> as temporary disturbances occurring for up to 2.5 years, while it defines deforestation as longer-term disturbances where disruptions to tree cover are visible for more than 2.5 years and no tree regrowth is detected over the last three years. In any given year, a forest is considered disturbed if there is a disruption detected in at least one Landsat image during that year.</p>



<p>Thus, pixels classified as degraded are still considered forest, with existing or regrowing trees, while pixels classified as deforested are undergoing a longer-term loss of forest. Because disruptions are recorded and analyzed for the entire time series, the data set classifies dynamics over time; for example, a forest pixel may be classified as degraded in one year after a short-term disturbance, then after a period of recovery may later be classified as deforested after ongoing disturbances with no tree regrowth. The JRC deforestation class therefore includes direct deforestation (deforestation of undisturbed forest) or deforestation after degradation (deforestation of forest that was previously classified as degraded).</p>



<p>The data set also analyzes the frequency, duration of disruptions and time of forest recovery in between disruption events to identify deforestation following degradation versus multiple degradation events.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><em>The UMD tree cover loss data set on GFW maps all types of tree cover loss globally</em></h3>



<p>The UMD tree cover loss data set maps annual tree cover loss from 2001 to 2022. The UMD team uses an algorithm that detects loss using change detection metrics based on comparison of Landsat images between the present and past years. Tree cover loss, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1244693" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defined as</a> a clearing of tree cover of at least a half of a 30-meter Landsat pixel, includes both temporary and permanent losses without defining or differentiating which loss is considered degradation or deforestation. Once classified as loss, pixels are masked from further updates, meaning that any following forest change dynamics — such as regrowth or subsequent disturbances — are not recorded.</p>



<p>The UMD tree cover loss data can be combined with contextual data layers, such as <a href="https://gfw.global/3kqcoqa">UMD’s map of humid tropical primary forest</a>, to see loss within specific forest types.</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Key differences between the JRC TMF and UMD tree cover loss data</h4>



<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>&nbsp;</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p><strong>JRC TMF</strong></p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p><strong>UMD tree cover loss</strong></p>
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>Temporal coverage</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>1990-2022</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>&nbsp;2000-2022</p>
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>Geographic coverage and extent</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p><strong>Tropical moist forest:</strong> closed primary and secondary forests in the humid tropics in 1990.</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p><strong>Global tree cover: </strong>woody vegetation with a minimum height of at least five meters at 30-meter resolution in 2000.</p>
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>Definition of disturbance</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>An absence of tree foliage cover within a 30-meter pixel.</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>Clearing of at least half of tree cover within a 30-meter pixel.</p>
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>Disturbance classes</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>Disturbances are classified as <strong>degradation </strong>if they are visible for less than 2.5 years, and <strong>deforestation </strong>if they are visible for more than 2.5 years with no vegetative regrowth over the last three years.</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>All disturbances classified as <strong>tree cover loss. </strong>The length of disturbance is not considered.</p>
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>Methods</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>Classifies valid single-date Landsat images and derives disturbance classes by analyzing the single-date classifications. Dynamics of disturbance events over time are recorded.</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>Classifies change using change detection metrics derived from all valid Landsat images over the present and past years. Only the first loss event that is detected is recorded.</p>
			</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What do the UMD and JRC data show about forest disturbances in the tropics?</h2>



<p>Overall, the JRC data detects a larger area of disturbances across the tropics from 2001-2022 compared with the UMD data. The JRC data detects 258 Mha of disturbances, including 113 Mha of degradation and 145 Mha of deforestation, while the UMD data detects 143 Mha of tree cover loss. However, trends in total deforestation mapped by JRC and tree cover loss mapped by UMD are generally aligned: They are largely similar for the first decade; then from 2013-2015, JRC detects a larger area as deforestation than UMD detects as loss, and after 2016, UMD detects a larger area.</p>



<div class="flourish-embed" data-src="story/2112582?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<p>We further separated out the disturbance types mapped by the JRC data and overlaid the data sets to evaluate how the two data sets compare at each pixel.</p>



<p>Among all the JRC data’s disturbance classes, the JRC direct deforestation class aligned most closely with UMD tree cover loss. Across the tropics from 2001-2022, 46.8 Mha, or 68%, of the area classified as direct deforestation by the JRC data was also classified as tree cover loss in the UMD data. This varied by region and was highest in Asia/Oceania and the Americas (66% and 75% respectively) and lowest in Africa (50%). The UMD data less often classified areas that JRC identified as deforestation after degradation as tree cover loss (38.1 Mha, or 50% across the tropics).</p>



<p>In some areas, disturbances classified as degradation by the JRC TMF data set were classified as tree cover loss by the UMD data. Across the tropics from 2001-2022, 32.6 Mha, or 29%, of the area the JRC data classified as degradation was also classified as tree cover loss in the UMD data. The JRC degradation class includes three types of degradation: short-duration (less than one year), long-duration (1-2.5 years) and short-duration over 2-3 periods (short-duration degradation that occurs two to three separate times throughout the time period). The JRC data also measures “intensity” of degradation based on the total number of Landsat images where disruptions in tree cover were visible. We found that, in general, the UMD data:</p>



<ul>
<li>More often detected longer duration degradation as tree cover loss. Short-duration degradation (including events occurring just once or over 2-3 periods), which represents 85% of the forest area mapped as degraded by JRC since 2001, is usually not shown as tree cover loss by the UMD data.</li>



<li>Classified degradation events as tree cover loss that had an intensity of greater than six images on average, while those UMD did not classify as loss had approximately three images or less on average.</li>



<li>Detected a larger proportion of the area JRC classified as degradation from 2015 onwards, which may be <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/data-and-research/tree-cover-loss-satellite-data-trend-analysis/">due to the algorithm changes</a> in the UMD data that increase forest loss detection sensitivity in case of fires, selective logging and other disturbance types that JRC classified as degradation.</li>
</ul>



<p>In other areas across the tropics, the UMD data detected tree cover loss for 6.4 Mha, or 7%, of areas where there the JRC data detected no disturbance events.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full is-resized"><img decoding="async" loading="lazy" width="1222" height="1163" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Comparison-JRC-TMF-and-UMD-table.png" alt="Comparison of JRC TMF and UMD tree cover loss disturbances across the tropics" class="wp-image-16572" style="aspect-ratio:1.0507308684436802;width:771px;height:auto" srcset="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Comparison-JRC-TMF-and-UMD-table.png 1222w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Comparison-JRC-TMF-and-UMD-table-1024x975.png 1024w, https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Comparison-JRC-TMF-and-UMD-table-768x731.png 768w" sizes="(max-width: 1222px) 100vw, 1222px" /></figure>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Forest disturbances related to shifting cultivation in Mongala, DRC</h4>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-photo-slider" data-src="visualisation/16055613?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Large scale deforestation along BR-230 in Amazonas, Brazil</h4>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-photo-slider" data-src="visualisation/16055698?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Selective logging in Pará, Brazil</h4>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-photo-slider" data-src="visualisation/16365261?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Why does the UMD and JRC data align in some ways and differ in others?</h2>



<p>The two data sets align more closely for more abrupt disturbances that are likely to meet the definitions used in both data sets, such as intense fires (which the JRC data may classify as long-duration degradation) or clearance of tree cover for agricultural expansion (usually classified as deforestation in the JRC data). The two data sets are less likely to detect the same disturbance when it is followed by a rapid recovery (such as short-duration degradation in the JRC data, including disturbances like drought, selective logging or low-intensity fires, which may only be detected in as few as one Landsat image) or disturbances resulting in gradual reduction of tree cover over a longer time period (such as degradation followed by deforestation in the JRC data). In these cases, the disturbance may not meet the UMD definition of tree cover loss and therefore is less likely to be detected in the UMD data.</p>



<p>Both data sets have different strengths. The UMD data is global in scope, allowing for comparative analysis across regions due to global consistency in definitions and methods. Within the tropics, the UMD data includes broader coverage of forest types beyond tropical moist forests, including tropical dry forests.<a href="https://gfw.global/3GEmSQh"></a> The UMD data also provides flexibility for users to adjust the canopy density threshold according to their preference or needs, which can be used to align with a specific forest definition or forest characteristics of a specific biome.</p>



<p>Meanwhile, the JRC data detects degradation and less intense disturbances, which can be helpful for users who want to understand where forests have experienced various types of stresses that have not resulted in complete loss. The JRC data also monitors forests after initial disturbances to track forest recovery and subsequent disturbances, which is helpful for users who would like to understand yearly change dynamics and identify where there are repeated disturbances.</p>



<p>However, it is important to note that we are not evaluating the accuracy of either data set. Assessing which data set is more accurate for a specific use case or geography would require a formal validation exercise.</p>



<p>Ultimately, these two data sets present complementary information that can help us better understand the various types of changes occurring in tropical forests.</p>



<hr> 

<div class="attribute" style="”padding-bottom:" 10px;”="">
 

Note: This blog investigates the JRC TMF map, which is a separate product from the JRC global map of forest cover for year 2020, released on December 7, 2023.

 

</div> 

 

<hr>



<style type="text/css"></style>

Differences Between Global Forest Watch’s Tree Cover Loss Data and JRC’s Tropical Moist Forest Data Explained

<p>The wide availability of forest and land cover maps based on satellite data provides more information on the world’s forests than ever before. However, this plethora of information can also be challenging for people trying to understand differences in data sources and decide which data to use for a specific purpose.</p>



<p>In the past, we’ve compared the <a href="https://gfw.global/3BfwQWz">annual tree cover loss data</a> from the University of Maryland (UMD) and available on Global Forest Watch (GFW) with national data from <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/data-and-research/2022-tree-cover-loss-data-explained/">Brazil and Indonesia</a>, as well as with data from the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/data-and-research/global-forest-watch-and-the-forest-resources-assessment-explained-in-5-graphics-2/">Global Forest Resources Assessment</a>, to shed light on some of these differences.</p>



<p>Another data set that tracks forest change in the tropics is the <a href="https://forobs.jrc.ec.europa.eu/TMF" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tropical Moist Forest (TMF) data set</a> from the European Commission Joint Research Centre (JRC). Like the UMD tree cover loss data, the JRC TMF data is based on Landsat satellite imagery and is updated annually. Yet while both data sets map forest disturbances, the maps and numbers look a little different.</p>



<p>In this blog, we explain some key differences in the definitions and methods used for each data set that impact the resulting maps and discuss how the disturbances mapped by both data sets compare (while the data sets also map forest gain or regrowth, this blog focuses on comparing their mapping of forest disturbances). While understanding these differences can help determine the contexts for which each data set might be useful, note that this analysis does not evaluate the quality or accuracy of either data set.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What areas do the JRC and UMD data sets cover, and how do they define forests?</h2>



<p>The UMD data set maps forests globally based on <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1244693" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">tree cover extent</a> in 2000. <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1244693" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Tree cover</a> is defined as woody vegetation with a minimum height of at least five meters at 30-meter resolution, which includes all types of tree cover — including natural or managed forest and plantations — and is not limited to a specific forest type. The GFW map shows tree cover with a 30% canopy density, which we use in our analyses and in this comparison, although users can adjust the threshold based on their needs.</p>



<p>The JRC data set, on the other hand, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abe1603" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">maps forests</a> beginning in 1990. The data includes all closed primary and secondary forests in the humid tropics and does not apply a minimum height or canopy density threshold to delineate forest extent.</p>



<p>As a result of these definitional differences, some areas included in the 2000 UMD tree cover extent in the tropics like dry forests, young secondary forests and plantations are not classified as forests in the JRC data set in 2000 — a total of 655 million hectares (Mha), or 34%, of the UMD tree cover extent area that overlaps with the JRC data. Likewise, the JRC forest extent in 2000 includes some areas that do not meet the height and 30% canopy density threshold in the UMD data or are otherwise not mapped as tree cover by the UMD data — 17.2 Mha, or 1% of the JRC forest extent.</p>



<p>Because of the differences in geographic coverage and scope between the two data sets, this blog only compares forest disturbances from 2001-2022 for areas that, in the year 2000, are mapped both as tree cover by UMD and as forest by JRC.</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What types of forest disturbances do the UMD and JRC data map?</h2>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><em>The JRC Tropical Moist Forest data set maps degradation and deforestation in the humid tropics</em></h3>



<p>The JRC TMF data set maps disturbances to tropical moist forests — including degradation and deforestation — from 1990 to 2022. The JRC team maps these changes using an algorithm that detects forest disruptions, meaning an absence of tree foliage cover within a 30-meter pixel for each available Landsat image, and then classifies the status of forest based on how long these disruptions are visible.</p>



<p>The TMF data set <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.abe1603" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defines degradation</a> as temporary disturbances occurring for up to 2.5 years, while it defines deforestation as longer-term disturbances where disruptions to tree cover are visible for more than 2.5 years and no tree regrowth is detected over the last three years. In any given year, a forest is considered disturbed if there is a disruption detected in at least one Landsat image during that year.</p>



<p>Thus, pixels classified as degraded are still considered forest, with existing or regrowing trees, while pixels classified as deforested are undergoing a longer-term loss of forest. Because disruptions are recorded and analyzed for the entire time series, the data set classifies dynamics over time; for example, a forest pixel may be classified as degraded in one year after a short-term disturbance, then after a period of recovery may later be classified as deforested after ongoing disturbances with no tree regrowth. The JRC deforestation class therefore includes direct deforestation (deforestation of undisturbed forest) or deforestation after degradation (deforestation of forest that was previously classified as degraded).</p>



<p>The data set also analyzes the frequency, duration of disruptions and time of forest recovery in between disruption events to identify deforestation following degradation versus multiple degradation events.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><em>The UMD tree cover loss data set on GFW maps all types of tree cover loss globally</em></h3>



<p>The UMD tree cover loss data set maps annual tree cover loss from 2001 to 2022. The UMD team uses an algorithm that detects loss using change detection metrics based on comparison of Landsat images between the present and past years. Tree cover loss, <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1244693" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">defined as</a> a clearing of tree cover of at least a half of a 30-meter Landsat pixel, includes both temporary and permanent losses without defining or differentiating which loss is considered degradation or deforestation. Once classified as loss, pixels are masked from further updates, meaning that any following forest change dynamics — such as regrowth or subsequent disturbances — are not recorded.</p>



<p>The UMD tree cover loss data can be combined with contextual data layers, such as <a href="https://gfw.global/3kqcoqa">UMD’s map of humid tropical primary forest</a>, to see loss within specific forest types.</p>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Key differences between the JRC TMF and UMD tree cover loss data</h4>



<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>&nbsp;</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p><strong>JRC TMF</strong></p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p><strong>UMD tree cover loss</strong></p>
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>Temporal coverage</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>1990-2022</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>&nbsp;2000-2022</p>
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>Geographic coverage and extent</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p><strong>Tropical moist forest:</strong> closed primary and secondary forests in the humid tropics in 1990.</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p><strong>Global tree cover: </strong>woody vegetation with a minimum height of at least five meters at 30-meter resolution in 2000.</p>
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>Definition of disturbance</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>An absence of tree foliage cover within a 30-meter pixel.</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>Clearing of at least half of tree cover within a 30-meter pixel.</p>
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>Disturbance classes</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>Disturbances are classified as <strong>degradation </strong>if they are visible for less than 2.5 years, and <strong>deforestation </strong>if they are visible for more than 2.5 years with no vegetative regrowth over the last three years.</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>All disturbances classified as <strong>tree cover loss. </strong>The length of disturbance is not considered.</p>
			</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td style="width:165px;height:20px;">
			<p>Methods</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>Classifies valid single-date Landsat images and derives disturbance classes by analyzing the single-date classifications. Dynamics of disturbance events over time are recorded.</p>
			</td>
			<td style="width:320px;height:20px;">
			<p>Classifies change using change detection metrics derived from all valid Landsat images over the present and past years. Only the first loss event that is detected is recorded.</p>
			</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What do the UMD and JRC data show about forest disturbances in the tropics?</h2>



<p>Overall, the JRC data detects a larger area of disturbances across the tropics from 2001-2022 compared with the UMD data. The JRC data detects 258 Mha of disturbances, including 113 Mha of degradation and 145 Mha of deforestation, while the UMD data detects 143 Mha of tree cover loss. However, trends in total deforestation mapped by JRC and tree cover loss mapped by UMD are generally aligned: They are largely similar for the first decade; then from 2013-2015, JRC detects a larger area as deforestation than UMD detects as loss, and after 2016, UMD detects a larger area.</p>



<div class="flourish-embed" data-src="story/2112582?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<p>We further separated out the disturbance types mapped by the JRC data and overlaid the data sets to evaluate how the two data sets compare at each pixel.</p>



<p>Among all the JRC data’s disturbance classes, the JRC direct deforestation class aligned most closely with UMD tree cover loss. Across the tropics from 2001-2022, 46.8 Mha, or 68%, of the area classified as direct deforestation by the JRC data was also classified as tree cover loss in the UMD data. This varied by region and was highest in Asia/Oceania and the Americas (66% and 75% respectively) and lowest in Africa (50%). The UMD data less often classified areas that JRC identified as deforestation after degradation as tree cover loss (38.1 Mha, or 50% across the tropics).</p>



<p>In some areas, disturbances classified as degradation by the JRC TMF data set were classified as tree cover loss by the UMD data. Across the tropics from 2001-2022, 32.6 Mha, or 29%, of the area the JRC data classified as degradation was also classified as tree cover loss in the UMD data. The JRC degradation class includes three types of degradation: short-duration (less than one year), long-duration (1-2.5 years) and short-duration over 2-3 periods (short-duration degradation that occurs two to three separate times throughout the time period). The JRC data also measures “intensity” of degradation based on the total number of Landsat images where disruptions in tree cover were visible. We found that, in general, the UMD data:</p>



<ul>
<li>More often detected longer duration degradation as tree cover loss. Short-duration degradation (including events occurring just once or over 2-3 periods), which represents 85% of the forest area mapped as degraded by JRC since 2001, is usually not shown as tree cover loss by the UMD data.</li>



<li>Classified degradation events as tree cover loss that had an intensity of greater than six images on average, while those UMD did not classify as loss had approximately three images or less on average.</li>



<li>Detected a larger proportion of the area JRC classified as degradation from 2015 onwards, which may be <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/data-and-research/tree-cover-loss-satellite-data-trend-analysis/">due to the algorithm changes</a> in the UMD data that increase forest loss detection sensitivity in case of fires, selective logging and other disturbance types that JRC classified as degradation.</li>
</ul>



<p>In other areas across the tropics, the UMD data detected tree cover loss for 6.4 Mha, or 7%, of areas where there the JRC data detected no disturbance events.</p>



<figure class="wp-block-image size-full is-resized"><img src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/Comparison-JRC-TMF-and-UMD-table.png" alt="Comparison of JRC TMF and UMD tree cover loss disturbances across the tropics" class="wp-image-16572" style="aspect-ratio:1.0507308684436802;width:771px;height:auto"/></figure>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Forest disturbances related to shifting cultivation in Mongala, DRC</h4>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-photo-slider" data-src="visualisation/16055613?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Large scale deforestation along BR-230 in Amazonas, Brazil</h4>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-photo-slider" data-src="visualisation/16055698?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<h4 class="wp-block-heading">Selective logging in Pará, Brazil</h4>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-photo-slider" data-src="visualisation/16365261?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Why does the UMD and JRC data align in some ways and differ in others?</h2>



<p>The two data sets align more closely for more abrupt disturbances that are likely to meet the definitions used in both data sets, such as intense fires (which the JRC data may classify as long-duration degradation) or clearance of tree cover for agricultural expansion (usually classified as deforestation in the JRC data). The two data sets are less likely to detect the same disturbance when it is followed by a rapid recovery (such as short-duration degradation in the JRC data, including disturbances like drought, selective logging or low-intensity fires, which may only be detected in as few as one Landsat image) or disturbances resulting in gradual reduction of tree cover over a longer time period (such as degradation followed by deforestation in the JRC data). In these cases, the disturbance may not meet the UMD definition of tree cover loss and therefore is less likely to be detected in the UMD data.</p>



<p>Both data sets have different strengths. The UMD data is global in scope, allowing for comparative analysis across regions due to global consistency in definitions and methods. Within the tropics, the UMD data includes broader coverage of forest types beyond tropical moist forests, including tropical dry forests.<a href="https://gfw.global/3GEmSQh"></a> The UMD data also provides flexibility for users to adjust the canopy density threshold according to their preference or needs, which can be used to align with a specific forest definition or forest characteristics of a specific biome.</p>



<p>Meanwhile, the JRC data detects degradation and less intense disturbances, which can be helpful for users who want to understand where forests have experienced various types of stresses that have not resulted in complete loss. The JRC data also monitors forests after initial disturbances to track forest recovery and subsequent disturbances, which is helpful for users who would like to understand yearly change dynamics and identify where there are repeated disturbances.</p>



<p>However, it is important to note that we are not evaluating the accuracy of either data set. Assessing which data set is more accurate for a specific use case or geography would require a formal validation exercise.</p>



<p>Ultimately, these two data sets present complementary information that can help us better understand the various types of changes occurring in tropical forests.</p>



<hr> 

<div class="attribute" style="”padding-bottom:" 10px;”="">
 

Note: This blog investigates the JRC TMF map, which is a separate product from the JRC global map of forest cover for year 2020, released on December 7, 2023.

 

</div> 

 

<hr>

We explain key differences between two data sets that track forest change in the tropics: UMD tree cover loss and JRC Tropical Moist Forest.

Tree Cover Loss and Tropical Moist Forest Differences, Explained

commodities

commodities | Global Forest Watch Blog

logging

logging | Global Forest Watch Blog

policy

policy | Global Forest Watch Blog

Fred Stolle

Liz Goldman

Tina Schneider

Ruth Nogueron

Monitoring Forest Degradation for the EU Deforestation Regulation Using GFW

Under the EUDR, wood products entering the EU market must be degradation-free. Tools like GFW can help companies monitor for degradation.

Monitoring Forest Degradation for the EUDR | GFW Blog

Stolby National Park in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia, Russia.

Forest Insights

Forest Insights | Global Forest Watch Blog

<p><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW250124087 BCX0"><em>Susan Minnemayer and Lars Laestadius contributed to a previous version of this article.&nbsp;</em></span></p>



<p><a href="https://intactforests.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intact forest landscapes</a>, or vast stretches of unbroken forested wilderness, are some of the most important ecosystems in the world. Their intactness makes them uniquely valuable to nature. They regulate temperature and rainfall across continents, provide homes to Indigenous Peoples, have some of the highest biodiversity rates in the world and store huge amounts of carbon, among other benefits.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>But they’re also under threat.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/?map=eyJjZW50ZXIiOnsibGF0IjoyNS40MjMwMTc4NTYyMDY5NjUsImxuZyI6LTUxLjEwNTQ2ODc0OTk5OTUyNH0sImRhdGFzZXRzIjpbeyJkYXRhc2V0IjoiaW50YWN0LWZvcmVzdC1sYW5kc2NhcGVzIiwib3BhY2l0eSI6MSwidmlzaWJpbGl0eSI6dHJ1ZSwibGF5ZXJzIjpbImludGFjdC1mb3Jlc3QtbGFuZHNjYXBlcyJdfSx7ImRhdGFzZXQiOiJwb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyIsImxheWVycyI6WyJkaXNwdXRlZC1wb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyIsInBvbGl0aWNhbC1ib3VuZGFyaWVzIl0sIm9wYWNpdHkiOjEsInZpc2liaWxpdHkiOnRydWV9XX0%3D&mapMenu=eyJkYXRhc2V0Q2F0ZWdvcnkiOiJsYW5kQ292ZXIifQ%3D%3D">latest data on Global Forest Watch</a>, the extent of world’s intact forest landscapes decreased by 12% (155 million hectares) between 2000 and 2020. This is an area larger than twice the size of Chile.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Furthermore, the global rate at which intact forest landscapes are decreasing is speeding up, from an average of 7.1 million hectares per year from 2000-2013 to an average of 9 million hectares per year from 2013-2020.&nbsp;</p>



<p>New roads developed for industrial timber and oil and gas extraction, agricultural expansion and fires<sup>1</sup> are the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600821" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">main causes</a> of reduction in the extent of intact forest landscapes. If the trend doesn’t reverse, the world could lose much of its unbroken forest tracts this century, posing problems for nature, the climate and human well-being.&nbsp;</p>



<aside id="textbox"> <div><em><b>How are intact forest landscapes defined?</b><p></p> 

Intact forest landscapes are patches of forests and natural treeless ecosystems that show no signs of significant human activity or habitat fragmentation (as detected by satellite imagery) and are large enough to maintain all native biodiversity. Some forms of low-intensity or historic human disturbances, such as scattered, small-scale shifting cultivation and low-intensity selective logging may be included in an intact forest landscape if the disturbance is too small to be detected by satellites.  <br><br>
In order to ensure that areas designated as intact forest landscapes are large enough to provide refuge for wide-ranging species, researchers used <a href="https://intactforests.org/method.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">three criteria</a> in addition to the requirement of no visible, significant human-caused disturbances: 1) minimum area of 50,000 hectares; 2) minimum patch width of 10 km; and 3) minimum corridor/appendage width of 2 km.  
<br><br>
<img decoding="async" class=" wp-image-3569 alignright" style="padding-bottom: 10px;" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/22.10.27_Definition-of-IFL_Insights-3.png" width="100%">

A portion of an intact forest landscape, or in some cases an entire patch, may no longer be considered an intact forest landscape if these criteria are no longer met due to human-caused alteration or fragmentation. For example, if a road is built across an intact forest landscape patch that causes the remaining patches to no longer meet the criteria, the entire patch would no longer be considered an intact forest landscape. As a result, that intact forest landscape area is lost and the total global area decreases. For each update of the global intact forest landscape map, researchers only assess areas currently designated as intact forest landscapes. Therefore, this methodology does not take into account forest regeneration and assumes that once lost, intactness cannot be regained. </em></div> </aside>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Where and Why Are Intact Forests Becoming Fragmented?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Countries with the largest remaining areas of intact forest landscapes are found primarily in boreal and tropical regions. These areas also experienced the largest reduction in intact forest landscape area over the past two decades. Only small areas of intact forest landscapes remain in temperate regions due to extensive commercial logging and agricultural activities prior to the year 2000.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Timber harvesting and agricultural expansion were the leading drivers of reduction of intact forest landscapes in the tropics, while timber harvesting was the leading cause in the southern boreal and temperate zones. In the northern boreal region, human-caused fires were the leading driver of intact forest landscape reduction.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As of 2020, Canada, Russia and Brazil had the largest area of remaining intact forest landscapes, making up over 65% of the global total. However, these countries also experienced the largest reduction from 2000-2020.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Russia experienced the largest reduction in intact forest landscape area between 2000 to 2020, losing 40.9 million hectares due largely to oil and gas extraction, industrial logging, gold mining and extensive human-caused fires linked to these activities.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>In Brazil, which experienced the second-highest reduction, agricultural and pasture expansion was responsible. In Canada, human-caused fires adjacent to logging, mining and infrastructure were the leading driver.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Romania had the largest percent decline, losing all of its intact forest landscape area by 2013, followed by Paraguay, where the intact forest landscape area decreased by 81% by 2020. The Solomon Islands, Laos, Central African Republic, Nicaragua and Equatorial Guinea lost over half of their intact forest landscape area by 2020.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, not all countries experienced a decline in intact forest landscape extent. Although they contain a relatively small area, Cuba and Japan had almost no change in their extent of intact forest landscapes from 2000-2020.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-scatter" data-src="visualisation/11132753?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-chart" data-src="visualisation/11174611?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Problem with Losing Forest Intactness&nbsp;</h2>



<aside id="textbox"> <div><em><b>Multiple measures of forest health</b><p></p> 

Various methodologies exist for designating forests that have significant ecological value. These include <a href="https://www.hcvnetwork.org/hcv-approach" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">High Conservation Value (HCV) Forests</a>, <a href="https://highcarbonstock.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">High Carbon Stock Forests</a> and <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/?map=eyJkYXRhc2V0cyI6W3siZGF0YXNldCI6ImZvcmVzdC1sYW5kc2NhcGUtaW50ZWdyaXR5LWluZGV4Iiwib3BhY2l0eSI6MSwidmlzaWJpbGl0eSI6dHJ1ZSwibGF5ZXJzIjpbImZvcmVzdC1sYW5kc2NhcGUtaW50ZWdyaXR5LWluZGV4LTIwMjEiXX0seyJkYXRhc2V0IjoicG9saXRpY2FsLWJvdW5kYXJpZXMiLCJsYXllcnMiOlsiZGlzcHV0ZWQtcG9saXRpY2FsLWJvdW5kYXJpZXMiLCJwb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyJdLCJvcGFjaXR5IjoxLCJ2aXNpYmlsaXR5Ijp0cnVlfV19&mapMenu=eyJkYXRhc2V0Q2F0ZWdvcnkiOiJsYW5kQ292ZXIifQ%3D%3D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Forest Landscape Integrity</a>, in addition to intact forest landscapes. Although these designations can all be used to identify forests that are important to protect, they differ with respect to their specific definitions, requirements and methodologies, and they each have strengths and limitations depending on the context and purpose for which they are used. <br><br>
In some cases, these measures can be complementary. For example, the <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/why-preserving-forest-integrity-preventing-deforestation" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Forest Landscape Integrity Index</a> measures the degree to which a forest’s structure, composition and function are free from modification by humans, and can show forest degradation on a spectrum. This can provide information about the variation in integrity outside the most intact areas. Meanwhile, intact forest landscapes are a binary classification, and the forests found within them have high integrity values.  

</em></div> </aside>



<p>Intact forest landscapes are unique and irreplaceable. With many forests around the world being degraded and lost, intact forest landscapes offer important areas of high forest integrity. Intactness cannot easily be regained — once altered, complex assemblages of biodiversity would be extremely challenging to restore.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>For example, extending new roads into remote forest areas facilitates human access, which can lead to cascading changes: wildlife habitat loss, unregulated hunting, increased human settlement and population density, forest clearing from logging, forest loss from agricultural expansion, fires, and other changes that degrade forests and may eventually convert vast forest areas to other land uses.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Intact forests also offer a unique opportunity to mitigate two of the greatest environmental challenges Earth faces: climate change and species extinction.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Intact forest landscapes are critical for sequestering and storing carbon. Forests within remaining intact forest landscapes had an average annual net sink of -2 gigatonnes CO2e per year from 2001-2021, making up <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-020-00976-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">over one-quarter</a> of the average annual global net carbon sink from forests. On average, tropical intact forests <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600821" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">store triple the amount</a> of above-ground carbon of non-intact tropical forests.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Meanwhile, northern boreal forests have huge soil carbon stores. While they store less above-ground carbon than their tropical counterparts, boreal intact forests occupy a vast area, making up 38% of global intact forest landscapes in 2020. These intact forest landscapes <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/climate/intact-forest-landscapes-matter-for-climate-change-here-are-3-reasons-why/?utm_campaign=gfw&utm_source=gfwblog&utm_medium=hyperlink&utm_term=borealfires_10_2019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">play an important role in the protection of permafrost</a>, which is critical to preventing the release of climate-warming carbon and methane locked in soils.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, scientists estimate that tropical forests contain <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2420" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">over half of the world’s terrestrial vertebrate species</a>, despite occupying less than one-fifth of global land area. Many of these species depend on intact forests for their survival.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">How Can We Protect Intact Forest Landscapes? &nbsp;</h2>



<p>The importance of intact forest landscapes is being increasingly recognized in conservation and climate policy. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), for example, <a href="https://www.iucn.org/resources/policy-statement/iucn-policy-statement-primary-forests-including-intact-forest-landscapes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recognizes the value of intact forest landscapes and the need to conserve them</a> in their <a href="https://www.iucn.org/resources/policy-statement/iucn-policy-statement-primary-forests-including-intact-forest-landscapes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">policy on primary forests</a>, recommending that stakeholders take steps to mitigate threats to intact forests and identify appropriate management options. IUCN policies, which are adopted through multi-stakeholder processes among IUCN member organizations including civil society and governments, guide global conservation priorities. This recognition can help elevate the importance of intact forest landscapes in national and international policy.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, climate finance is becoming more accessible to countries with large areas of intact forest and low deforestation rates, such as through crediting for the protection of forests in these jurisdictions as part of the <a href="https://www.artredd.org/trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Architecture for REDD+ Transactions (ART) Environmental Excellence Standard</a>. Increasing flows of climate finance can support countries in their efforts to preserve intact forests.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>For international agreements and national forest commitments that aim to halt forest loss — including the <a href="https://forestdeclaration.org/about/new-york-declaration-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York Declaration on Forests</a>, the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UN Sustainable Development Goals</a>, the <a href="https://ukcop26.org/glasgow-leaders-declaration-on-forests-and-land-use/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Glasgow Leaders Declaration on Forests and Land Use</a> and the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/conferences/post2020" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Convention on Biological Diversity’s (CBD) Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework</a> — intact forest landscapes offer a measurable benchmark toward goals. They are also important areas to prioritize in order to achieve many of these international targets.&nbsp;</p>



<p><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600821" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research shows</a> that designating intact forest landscapes as protected areas has proven effective at limiting their fragmentation, but only <a href="https://research.wri.org/gfr/forest-designation-indicators/protected-forests" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">36% of remaining intact forests are under some form of legal protection</a>. Countries should consider intact forest landscapes high-priority candidates when they revise or expand existing protected areas, such as through efforts to meet the CBD’s Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework target to conserve and equitably manage 30% of global land by 2030.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2148" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research shows</a> that the rate of intact forest loss is lower in areas that overlap with Indigenous Peoples’ lands — over one-third of intact forest landscapes globally — highlighting local communities’ critical role in managing these forests. Recognizing Indigenous Peoples’ land tenure rights and supporting their efforts to sustainably manage their lands can help avoid further fragmentation of intact forest landscapes.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p></p>



<p><em><sup>1</sup> Fire-related disturbances are considered a factor that can lead to a reduction in intact forest landscape area only when they are likely to be caused by humans, rather than natural causes (such as lightning strikes). The intact forest landscape methodology differentiates natural fires from human-caused fires by assuming that burned areas that are adjacent to areas with human access (e.g.,&nbsp;near infrastructure, logging sites or agricultural areas) are likely to be caused by humans.&nbsp;</em></p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-css-opacity"/>



<div class="attribute">The latest intact forest landscape boundaries are now available on <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/?map=eyJjZW50ZXIiOnsibGF0IjoyNS40MjMwMTc4NTYyMDY5NjUsImxuZyI6LTUxLjEwNTQ2ODc0OTk5OTUyNH0sImRhdGFzZXRzIjpbeyJkYXRhc2V0IjoiaW50YWN0LWZvcmVzdC1sYW5kc2NhcGVzIiwib3BhY2l0eSI6MSwidmlzaWJpbGl0eSI6dHJ1ZSwibGF5ZXJzIjpbImludGFjdC1mb3Jlc3QtbGFuZHNjYXBlcyJdfSx7ImRhdGFzZXQiOiJwb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyIsImxheWVycyI6WyJkaXNwdXRlZC1wb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyIsInBvbGl0aWNhbC1ib3VuZGFyaWVzIl0sIm9wYWNpdHkiOjEsInZpc2liaWxpdHkiOnRydWV9XX0%3D&mapMenu=eyJkYXRhc2V0Q2F0ZWdvcnkiOiJsYW5kQ292ZXIifQ%3D%3D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Global Forest Watch</a>, along with tools and data to monitor how forest change is affecting them.<br><br>  

The authors would like to acknowledge members of the IFL mapping team who contributed to the intact forest landscape data update, including Svetlana Turubanova (University of Maryland), and Anna Komarova, Igor Glushkov and Ilona Zhuravleva (Greenpeace).</div>

<div class="attribute">This post originally appeared on <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/worlds-last-intact-forests-are-becoming-increasingly-fragmented-0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Insights</a>.</div>



<style type="text/css"></style>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-css-opacity"/>



<p><style type="text/css"></style></p>

The World’s Last Intact Forests Are Becoming Increasingly Fragmented

<p><span class="NormalTextRun SCXW250124087 BCX0"><em>Susan Minnemayer and Lars Laestadius contributed to a previous version of this article.&nbsp;</em></span></p>



<p><a href="https://intactforests.org/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Intact forest landscapes</a>, or vast stretches of unbroken forested wilderness, are some of the most important ecosystems in the world. Their intactness makes them uniquely valuable to nature. They regulate temperature and rainfall across continents, provide homes to Indigenous Peoples, have some of the highest biodiversity rates in the world and store huge amounts of carbon, among other benefits.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>But they’re also under threat.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>According to the <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/?map=eyJjZW50ZXIiOnsibGF0IjoyNS40MjMwMTc4NTYyMDY5NjUsImxuZyI6LTUxLjEwNTQ2ODc0OTk5OTUyNH0sImRhdGFzZXRzIjpbeyJkYXRhc2V0IjoiaW50YWN0LWZvcmVzdC1sYW5kc2NhcGVzIiwib3BhY2l0eSI6MSwidmlzaWJpbGl0eSI6dHJ1ZSwibGF5ZXJzIjpbImludGFjdC1mb3Jlc3QtbGFuZHNjYXBlcyJdfSx7ImRhdGFzZXQiOiJwb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyIsImxheWVycyI6WyJkaXNwdXRlZC1wb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyIsInBvbGl0aWNhbC1ib3VuZGFyaWVzIl0sIm9wYWNpdHkiOjEsInZpc2liaWxpdHkiOnRydWV9XX0%3D&amp;mapMenu=eyJkYXRhc2V0Q2F0ZWdvcnkiOiJsYW5kQ292ZXIifQ%3D%3D">latest data on Global Forest Watch</a>, the extent of world’s intact forest landscapes decreased by 12% (155 million hectares) between 2000 and 2020. This is an area larger than twice the size of Chile.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Furthermore, the global rate at which intact forest landscapes are decreasing is speeding up, from an average of 7.1 million hectares per year from 2000-2013 to an average of 9 million hectares per year from 2013-2020.&nbsp;</p>



<p>New roads developed for industrial timber and oil and gas extraction, agricultural expansion and fires<sup>1</sup> are the <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600821" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">main causes</a> of reduction in the extent of intact forest landscapes. If the trend doesn’t reverse, the world could lose much of its unbroken forest tracts this century, posing problems for nature, the climate and human well-being.&nbsp;</p>



<aside id="textbox"> <div><em><b>How are intact forest landscapes defined?</b><p></p> 

Intact forest landscapes are patches of forests and natural treeless ecosystems that show no signs of significant human activity or habitat fragmentation (as detected by satellite imagery) and are large enough to maintain all native biodiversity. Some forms of low-intensity or historic human disturbances, such as scattered, small-scale shifting cultivation and low-intensity selective logging may be included in an intact forest landscape if the disturbance is too small to be detected by satellites.  <br><br>
In order to ensure that areas designated as intact forest landscapes are large enough to provide refuge for wide-ranging species, researchers used <a href="https://intactforests.org/method.html" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">three criteria</a> in addition to the requirement of no visible, significant human-caused disturbances: 1) minimum area of 50,000 hectares; 2) minimum patch width of 10 km; and 3) minimum corridor/appendage width of 2 km.  
<br><br>
<img class=" wp-image-3569 alignright" style="padding-bottom: 10px;" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/11/22.10.27_Definition-of-IFL_Insights-3.png" width="100%">

A portion of an intact forest landscape, or in some cases an entire patch, may no longer be considered an intact forest landscape if these criteria are no longer met due to human-caused alteration or fragmentation. For example, if a road is built across an intact forest landscape patch that causes the remaining patches to no longer meet the criteria, the entire patch would no longer be considered an intact forest landscape. As a result, that intact forest landscape area is lost and the total global area decreases. For each update of the global intact forest landscape map, researchers only assess areas currently designated as intact forest landscapes. Therefore, this methodology does not take into account forest regeneration and assumes that once lost, intactness cannot be regained. </em></div> </aside>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Where and Why Are Intact Forests Becoming Fragmented?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Countries with the largest remaining areas of intact forest landscapes are found primarily in boreal and tropical regions. These areas also experienced the largest reduction in intact forest landscape area over the past two decades. Only small areas of intact forest landscapes remain in temperate regions due to extensive commercial logging and agricultural activities prior to the year 2000.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Timber harvesting and agricultural expansion were the leading drivers of reduction of intact forest landscapes in the tropics, while timber harvesting was the leading cause in the southern boreal and temperate zones. In the northern boreal region, human-caused fires were the leading driver of intact forest landscape reduction.&nbsp;</p>



<p>As of 2020, Canada, Russia and Brazil had the largest area of remaining intact forest landscapes, making up over 65% of the global total. However, these countries also experienced the largest reduction from 2000-2020.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Russia experienced the largest reduction in intact forest landscape area between 2000 to 2020, losing 40.9 million hectares due largely to oil and gas extraction, industrial logging, gold mining and extensive human-caused fires linked to these activities.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>In Brazil, which experienced the second-highest reduction, agricultural and pasture expansion was responsible. In Canada, human-caused fires adjacent to logging, mining and infrastructure were the leading driver.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Romania had the largest percent decline, losing all of its intact forest landscape area by 2013, followed by Paraguay, where the intact forest landscape area decreased by 81% by 2020. The Solomon Islands, Laos, Central African Republic, Nicaragua and Equatorial Guinea lost over half of their intact forest landscape area by 2020.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>However, not all countries experienced a decline in intact forest landscape extent. Although they contain a relatively small area, Cuba and Japan had almost no change in their extent of intact forest landscapes from 2000-2020.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-scatter" data-src="visualisation/11132753?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-chart" data-src="visualisation/11174611?163031"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">The Problem with Losing Forest Intactness&nbsp;</h2>



<aside id="textbox"> <div><em><b>Multiple measures of forest health</b><p></p> 

Various methodologies exist for designating forests that have significant ecological value. These include <a href="https://www.hcvnetwork.org/hcv-approach" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">High Conservation Value (HCV) Forests</a>, <a href="https://highcarbonstock.org/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">High Carbon Stock Forests</a> and <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/?map=eyJkYXRhc2V0cyI6W3siZGF0YXNldCI6ImZvcmVzdC1sYW5kc2NhcGUtaW50ZWdyaXR5LWluZGV4Iiwib3BhY2l0eSI6MSwidmlzaWJpbGl0eSI6dHJ1ZSwibGF5ZXJzIjpbImZvcmVzdC1sYW5kc2NhcGUtaW50ZWdyaXR5LWluZGV4LTIwMjEiXX0seyJkYXRhc2V0IjoicG9saXRpY2FsLWJvdW5kYXJpZXMiLCJsYXllcnMiOlsiZGlzcHV0ZWQtcG9saXRpY2FsLWJvdW5kYXJpZXMiLCJwb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyJdLCJvcGFjaXR5IjoxLCJ2aXNpYmlsaXR5Ijp0cnVlfV19&amp;mapMenu=eyJkYXRhc2V0Q2F0ZWdvcnkiOiJsYW5kQ292ZXIifQ%3D%3D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Forest Landscape Integrity</a>, in addition to intact forest landscapes. Although these designations can all be used to identify forests that are important to protect, they differ with respect to their specific definitions, requirements and methodologies, and they each have strengths and limitations depending on the context and purpose for which they are used. <br><br>
In some cases, these measures can be complementary. For example, the <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/why-preserving-forest-integrity-preventing-deforestation" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Forest Landscape Integrity Index</a> measures the degree to which a forest’s structure, composition and function are free from modification by humans, and can show forest degradation on a spectrum. This can provide information about the variation in integrity outside the most intact areas. Meanwhile, intact forest landscapes are a binary classification, and the forests found within them have high integrity values.  

</em></div> </aside>



<p>Intact forest landscapes are unique and irreplaceable. With many forests around the world being degraded and lost, intact forest landscapes offer important areas of high forest integrity. Intactness cannot easily be regained — once altered, complex assemblages of biodiversity would be extremely challenging to restore.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>For example, extending new roads into remote forest areas facilitates human access, which can lead to cascading changes: wildlife habitat loss, unregulated hunting, increased human settlement and population density, forest clearing from logging, forest loss from agricultural expansion, fires, and other changes that degrade forests and may eventually convert vast forest areas to other land uses.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Intact forests also offer a unique opportunity to mitigate two of the greatest environmental challenges Earth faces: climate change and species extinction.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Intact forest landscapes are critical for sequestering and storing carbon. Forests within remaining intact forest landscapes had an average annual net sink of -2 gigatonnes CO2e per year from 2001-2021, making up <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41558-020-00976-6" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">over one-quarter</a> of the average annual global net carbon sink from forests. On average, tropical intact forests <a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600821" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">store triple the amount</a> of above-ground carbon of non-intact tropical forests.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Meanwhile, northern boreal forests have huge soil carbon stores. While they store less above-ground carbon than their tropical counterparts, boreal intact forests occupy a vast area, making up 38% of global intact forest landscapes in 2020. These intact forest landscapes <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/climate/intact-forest-landscapes-matter-for-climate-change-here-are-3-reasons-why/?utm_campaign=gfw&amp;utm_source=gfwblog&amp;utm_medium=hyperlink&amp;utm_term=borealfires_10_2019" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">play an important role in the protection of permafrost</a>, which is critical to preventing the release of climate-warming carbon and methane locked in soils.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, scientists estimate that tropical forests contain <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2420" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">over half of the world’s terrestrial vertebrate species</a>, despite occupying less than one-fifth of global land area. Many of these species depend on intact forests for their survival.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">How Can We Protect Intact Forest Landscapes? &nbsp;</h2>



<p>The importance of intact forest landscapes is being increasingly recognized in conservation and climate policy. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), for example, <a href="https://www.iucn.org/resources/policy-statement/iucn-policy-statement-primary-forests-including-intact-forest-landscapes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">recognizes the value of intact forest landscapes and the need to conserve them</a> in their <a href="https://www.iucn.org/resources/policy-statement/iucn-policy-statement-primary-forests-including-intact-forest-landscapes" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">policy on primary forests</a>, recommending that stakeholders take steps to mitigate threats to intact forests and identify appropriate management options. IUCN policies, which are adopted through multi-stakeholder processes among IUCN member organizations including civil society and governments, guide global conservation priorities. This recognition can help elevate the importance of intact forest landscapes in national and international policy.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Additionally, climate finance is becoming more accessible to countries with large areas of intact forest and low deforestation rates, such as through crediting for the protection of forests in these jurisdictions as part of the <a href="https://www.artredd.org/trees/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Architecture for REDD+ Transactions (ART) Environmental Excellence Standard</a>. Increasing flows of climate finance can support countries in their efforts to preserve intact forests.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>For international agreements and national forest commitments that aim to halt forest loss — including the <a href="https://forestdeclaration.org/about/new-york-declaration-on-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York Declaration on Forests</a>, the <a href="https://sdgs.un.org/goals" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">UN Sustainable Development Goals</a>, the <a href="https://ukcop26.org/glasgow-leaders-declaration-on-forests-and-land-use/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Glasgow Leaders Declaration on Forests and Land Use</a> and the <a href="https://www.cbd.int/conferences/post2020" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Convention on Biological Diversity’s (CBD) Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework</a> — intact forest landscapes offer a measurable benchmark toward goals. They are also important areas to prioritize in order to achieve many of these international targets.&nbsp;</p>



<p><a href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.1600821" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research shows</a> that designating intact forest landscapes as protected areas has proven effective at limiting their fragmentation, but only <a href="https://research.wri.org/gfr/forest-designation-indicators/protected-forests" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">36% of remaining intact forests are under some form of legal protection</a>. Countries should consider intact forest landscapes high-priority candidates when they revise or expand existing protected areas, such as through efforts to meet the CBD’s Post-2020 Biodiversity Framework target to conserve and equitably manage 30% of global land by 2030.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Moreover, <a href="https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/fee.2148" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">research shows</a> that the rate of intact forest loss is lower in areas that overlap with Indigenous Peoples’ lands — over one-third of intact forest landscapes globally — highlighting local communities’ critical role in managing these forests. Recognizing Indigenous Peoples’ land tenure rights and supporting their efforts to sustainably manage their lands can help avoid further fragmentation of intact forest landscapes.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p></p>



<p><em><sup>1</sup> Fire-related disturbances are considered a factor that can lead to a reduction in intact forest landscape area only when they are likely to be caused by humans, rather than natural causes (such as lightning strikes). The intact forest landscape methodology differentiates natural fires from human-caused fires by assuming that burned areas that are adjacent to areas with human access (e.g.,&nbsp;near infrastructure, logging sites or agricultural areas) are likely to be caused by humans.&nbsp;</em></p>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-css-opacity"/>



<div class="attribute">The latest intact forest landscape boundaries are now available on <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/?map=eyJjZW50ZXIiOnsibGF0IjoyNS40MjMwMTc4NTYyMDY5NjUsImxuZyI6LTUxLjEwNTQ2ODc0OTk5OTUyNH0sImRhdGFzZXRzIjpbeyJkYXRhc2V0IjoiaW50YWN0LWZvcmVzdC1sYW5kc2NhcGVzIiwib3BhY2l0eSI6MSwidmlzaWJpbGl0eSI6dHJ1ZSwibGF5ZXJzIjpbImludGFjdC1mb3Jlc3QtbGFuZHNjYXBlcyJdfSx7ImRhdGFzZXQiOiJwb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyIsImxheWVycyI6WyJkaXNwdXRlZC1wb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyIsInBvbGl0aWNhbC1ib3VuZGFyaWVzIl0sIm9wYWNpdHkiOjEsInZpc2liaWxpdHkiOnRydWV9XX0%3D&amp;mapMenu=eyJkYXRhc2V0Q2F0ZWdvcnkiOiJsYW5kQ292ZXIifQ%3D%3D" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Global Forest Watch</a>, along with tools and data to monitor how forest change is affecting them.<br><br>  

The authors would like to acknowledge members of the IFL mapping team who contributed to the intact forest landscape data update, including Svetlana Turubanova (University of Maryland), and Anna Komarova, Igor Glushkov and Ilona Zhuravleva (Greenpeace).</div>

<div class="attribute">This post originally appeared on <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/worlds-last-intact-forests-are-becoming-increasingly-fragmented-0" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Insights</a>.</div>



<style type="text/css"></style>



<hr class="wp-block-separator has-css-opacity"/>



<p><style type="text/css"></style></p>

Intact forest landscapes are some of the most important ecosystems in the world. But they decreased by 12% between 2000 and 2020.

The World’s Last Intact Forests Are Increasingly Fragmented | GFW

https://secure.gravatar.com/avatar/24e4b4a3160f1ef325f06a7df2da246f?s=96&d=mm&r=g

Octavia Payne

Logging roads in Papua province, Indonesia

Logging roads

Tom Evans

Hedley Grantham

Rod Taylor

<p>Most people point to deforestation — the clearing or burning of forests to make way for a different land-use, such as agriculture — as the greatest threat facing the world’s forests. But there’s another issue that’s just as important: forest integrity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Forest integrity refers to the health of the forest that remains standing, including its ability to store carbon, protect biodiversity, and provide social and economic benefits. Though equally important, forest integrity is harder to measure than deforestation. </p>



<p>The Forest Landscape Integrity Index on <a href="https://gfw.global/3tKOYUP" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Forest Watch </a>tracks forest integrity globally for the first time and shows that <strong>less than half of the world’s remaining forests have high integrity.&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong></p>



<p>Here, we explain what forest integrity is and examine the health of the world’s remaining forests.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What is forest integrity?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Forest integrity is defined by scientists as the degree to which a forest’s structure, composition and function are free from modification by humans. It exists as a spectrum, with very high-integrity forests on one end and very low-integrity, severely degraded forests on the other. </p>



<p>Minimal human influence is associated with high forest integrity; as more and more human activities affect a forest — such as logging, human-caused fires or farming — integrity declines. A high-integrity forest usually provides more environmental benefits than a forest of lower integrity. For example, high-integrity forests are generally more effective at: </p>



<ul>
<li>Slowing the pace of climate change by sequestering and storing carbon</li>



<li>Regulating water flows by stabilizing soils</li>



<li>Maintaining rainfall patterns through evapotranspiration</li>



<li>Providing habitat for forest-dependent animals</li>



<li>Supporting Indigenous Peoples’ and local communities’ livelihoods and cultural traditions</li>



<li><a href="https://sdg.iisd.org/commentary/guest-articles/preventing-future-pandemics-starts-with-protecting-our-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Preventing future pandemics</a> by limiting the spread of zoonotic diseases. </li>
</ul>



<p>High-integrity forests are also typically more resilient to the impacts of climate change, such as the warmer, drier conditions that can lead to forest fires.&nbsp;</p>



<div class="imagecenter"><img decoding="async" class=" wp-image-3569 alignright" style="padding-bottom: 10px;" alt="How we measure forest integrity, how it degrades, and what happens when it is lost" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/22.03.23-Forest-integrity-v3_Formatted-for-Insights-1-2.png" width="100%"></div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What are the biggest threats to forest integrity?&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Forests can be degraded directly by a wide range of human activities, including intensive logging, human-caused fires and over-hunting.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>They can also be degraded in less visible ways by fragmentation, and by the “edge effects” that spill over from adjacent human activities such as infrastructure development, farming and urbanization. </p>



<p>A forest edge is more exposed and accessible than its interior, leaving it more susceptible to human activities like wood fuel extraction, hunting, livestock grazing, burning and the spread of invasive species, and more vulnerable to conditions such as direct sunlight, high winds, heatwaves and droughts. &nbsp;</p>



<aside id="textbox"> <div><em><b>How the Forest Landscape Integrity Index works </b><br><br>The Forest Landscape Integrity Index estimates the loss of integrity in a given area of forest by combining observed reductions in forest connectivity with proxy data on the intensity of human activities known to degrade forests. Some of these activities are observed directly as part of the analysis, specifically infrastructure, agriculture and recent deforestation. The associated edge effects cannot readily be observed, so they are estimated using models based on field studies.   
</em></div> </aside>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Where are the world’s remaining high-integrity forests?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Forest Landscape Integrity Index examines forest integrity along a spectrum and categorizes forests as high, medium or low integrity. According to the data, only 40.5% of the world’s remaining forests still have high integrity. And even within this category, most forests have experienced at least a small degree of human modification.&nbsp;</p>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-photo-slider" data-src="visualisation/9174019?240776"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<p>High-integrity forests are concentrated mainly in the boreal forests of northern Russia, Canada and Alaska, as well as across the tropics in parts of the Amazon, the humid forests of Central Africa and the island of New Guinea. </p>



<p>Some smaller but still highly important patches also survive in other regions, including Mesoamerica, Madagascar, West Africa, Sumatra, Borneo and mainland Southeast Asia. Effective protected area management, action by Indigenous Peoples and local communities, difficult terrain and remote locations that deter industrial activity all contribute to forest integrity remaining high in these places.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Where is forest integrity at risk?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Hardly any forest on Earth is wholly free of human influence. The index shows that 31% of all forests worldwide experience easily observed direct pressures from infrastructure, agriculture or recent tree cover loss, while a further 60% experience some degree of human impact through edge effects and fragmentation. Over 25% are classified as low integrity. &nbsp;</p>



<p>As a result of a history of adverse human modification, low-integrity forests are now prevalent in many regions, including west and central Europe, the southeastern United States, mainland Southeast Asia, the Andes, West Africa, much of China and India, and the Atlantic Forests of Brazil. These low-integrity forests may be dominated by planted trees, including monoculture stands and agroforestry.&nbsp;</p>



<p>But it’s not just the vast expanse of low integrity forests that warrant concern. Many large areas with high-integrity forests are also experiencing <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/data-and-research/global-tree-cover-loss-data-2020/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high rates of tree cover loss</a> and degradation, particularly in Brazil and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. </p>



<p>In 2020 alone, these two countries lost 1.7 million hectares and 0.5 million hectares of primary forest, respectively. High-integrity forests are not necessarily legally protected from development; they can be highly threatened by encroaching human activities. Less than half of forests in every biome have high integrity, and of these, only a quarter are located in legally protected areas.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Governments and other actors must protect and monitor the world’s remaining high-integrity and medium-integrity forests, and protect and restore areas of low integrity.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Why does forest integrity get less attention than deforestation?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Deforestation is easier to measure than integrity. While there have been substantial improvements in our ability to monitor forest loss and gain in the past decade, consistent monitoring of forest integrity has proven more elusive until now.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>In recent years, pioneering maps of <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/?map=eyJkYXRhc2V0cyI6W3siZGF0YXNldCI6ImludGFjdC1mb3Jlc3QtbGFuZHNjYXBlcyIsIm9wYWNpdHkiOjEsInZpc2liaWxpdHkiOnRydWUsImxheWVycyI6WyJpbnRhY3QtZm9yZXN0LWxhbmRzY2FwZXMiXX0seyJkYXRhc2V0IjoicG9saXRpY2FsLWJvdW5kYXJpZXMiLCJsYXllcnMiOlsiZGlzcHV0ZWQtcG9saXRpY2FsLWJvdW5kYXJpZXMiLCJwb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyJdLCJvcGFjaXR5IjoxLCJ2aXNpYmlsaXR5Ijp0cnVlfV19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intact forest landscapes</a> and wilderness areas have identified tracts of high integrity, but because they use a binary classification, they cannot tell us about the variation in integrity outside the most intact areas. </p>



<p>Technical challenges and lack of data have historically made it difficult to monitor the nuances of forest integrity, especially since activities like selective logging are difficult to detect in satellite imagery, and the forest canopy obscures many activities that are harmful to forests.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The Forest Landscape Integrity Index accounts for this nuance at a global scale for the first time by estimating integrity along a spectrum. We can expect further advances in mapping and monitoring forest integrity as datasets and processing capabilities continue to improve.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What can we do to protect high-integrity forests and restore other forests?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While policy targets for deforestation are usually precise and ambitious, targets for degradation and forest integrity are often vague or absent entirely. The new data provide a transparent and credible tool that policymakers and other decision-makers can use to set quantified targets, create evidence-based plans, enhance monitoring, and retain and restore the ecological integrity of forests. </p>



<p>For example, governments could create and report on measurable, time-bound goals for maintaining or enhancing forest integrity within treaties such as the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, countries’ Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement and several UN Sustainable Development Goals.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Setting such policy goals can encourage governments and other stakeholders to invest in better forest management and restoration. They can formally recognize high-integrity forests, prioritize them in spatial planning, and place them under effective management schemes, such as through designated protected areas or Indigenous control. </p>



<p>Decision-makers can also identify low- and medium-integrity areas and target them for more sustainable management and/or restoration.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>In parallel, corporate zero-deforestation commitments must go further to incorporate and monitor forest integrity in businesses’ supply chains. Zero-deforestation commitments do not address the problem of declining forest integrity so long as it falls short of outright deforestation.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Keeping healthy, high-integrity forests functioning at their full potential can be a key part of the solution to global climate, biodiversity, inequality and health crises. We’ll lose many of these important ecosystem services if only degraded, low-integrity forests are left standing. Keeping global commitments such as the recent <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/what-cop26-means-forests-climate#:~:text=What%20Was%20Promised%20on%20Forests,and%20maintaining%20healthy%20ecosystem%20services." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Glasgow Leaders’ Declaration on Forests</a> within reach means we need to incorporate both deforestation <em>and</em> integrity into policy planning. &nbsp;</p>



<hr> 

<div class="attribute" style="”padding-bottom:" 10px;”=""> 
 

Originally appeared on <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/why-preserving-forest-integrity-preventing-deforestation" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">WRI Insights</a>. 


 

</div> 

 

<hr>



<style type="text/css"></style>

Why Preserving Forest Integrity Is As Vital As Preventing Deforestation

<p>Most people point to deforestation — the clearing or burning of forests to make way for a different land-use, such as agriculture — as the greatest threat facing the world’s forests. But there’s another issue that’s just as important: forest integrity.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Forest integrity refers to the health of the forest that remains standing, including its ability to store carbon, protect biodiversity, and provide social and economic benefits. Though equally important, forest integrity is harder to measure than deforestation. </p>



<p>The Forest Landscape Integrity Index on <a href="https://gfw.global/3tKOYUP" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Forest Watch </a>tracks forest integrity globally for the first time and shows that <strong>less than half of the world’s remaining forests have high integrity.&nbsp;&nbsp;</strong></p>



<p>Here, we explain what forest integrity is and examine the health of the world’s remaining forests.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What is forest integrity?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Forest integrity is defined by scientists as the degree to which a forest’s structure, composition and function are free from modification by humans. It exists as a spectrum, with very high-integrity forests on one end and very low-integrity, severely degraded forests on the other. </p>



<p>Minimal human influence is associated with high forest integrity; as more and more human activities affect a forest — such as logging, human-caused fires or farming — integrity declines. A high-integrity forest usually provides more environmental benefits than a forest of lower integrity. For example, high-integrity forests are generally more effective at: </p>



<ul>
<li>Slowing the pace of climate change by sequestering and storing carbon</li>



<li>Regulating water flows by stabilizing soils</li>



<li>Maintaining rainfall patterns through evapotranspiration</li>



<li>Providing habitat for forest-dependent animals</li>



<li>Supporting Indigenous Peoples’ and local communities’ livelihoods and cultural traditions</li>



<li><a href="https://sdg.iisd.org/commentary/guest-articles/preventing-future-pandemics-starts-with-protecting-our-forests/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Preventing future pandemics</a> by limiting the spread of zoonotic diseases. </li>
</ul>



<p>High-integrity forests are also typically more resilient to the impacts of climate change, such as the warmer, drier conditions that can lead to forest fires.&nbsp;</p>



<div class="imagecenter"><img class=" wp-image-3569 alignright" style="padding-bottom: 10px;" alt="How we measure forest integrity, how it degrades, and what happens when it is lost" src="https://content.globalforestwatch.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/04/22.03.23-Forest-integrity-v3_Formatted-for-Insights-1-2.png" width="100%"></div>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What are the biggest threats to forest integrity?&nbsp;&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Forests can be degraded directly by a wide range of human activities, including intensive logging, human-caused fires and over-hunting.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>They can also be degraded in less visible ways by fragmentation, and by the “edge effects” that spill over from adjacent human activities such as infrastructure development, farming and urbanization. </p>



<p>A forest edge is more exposed and accessible than its interior, leaving it more susceptible to human activities like wood fuel extraction, hunting, livestock grazing, burning and the spread of invasive species, and more vulnerable to conditions such as direct sunlight, high winds, heatwaves and droughts. &nbsp;</p>



<aside id="textbox"> <div><em><b>How the Forest Landscape Integrity Index works </b><br><br>The Forest Landscape Integrity Index estimates the loss of integrity in a given area of forest by combining observed reductions in forest connectivity with proxy data on the intensity of human activities known to degrade forests. Some of these activities are observed directly as part of the analysis, specifically infrastructure, agriculture and recent deforestation. The associated edge effects cannot readily be observed, so they are estimated using models based on field studies.   
</em></div> </aside>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Where are the world’s remaining high-integrity forests?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>The Forest Landscape Integrity Index examines forest integrity along a spectrum and categorizes forests as high, medium or low integrity. According to the data, only 40.5% of the world’s remaining forests still have high integrity. And even within this category, most forests have experienced at least a small degree of human modification.&nbsp;</p>



<div class="flourish-embed flourish-photo-slider" data-src="visualisation/9174019?240776"><script src="https://public.flourish.studio/resources/embed.js"></script></div>



<p>High-integrity forests are concentrated mainly in the boreal forests of northern Russia, Canada and Alaska, as well as across the tropics in parts of the Amazon, the humid forests of Central Africa and the island of New Guinea. </p>



<p>Some smaller but still highly important patches also survive in other regions, including Mesoamerica, Madagascar, West Africa, Sumatra, Borneo and mainland Southeast Asia. Effective protected area management, action by Indigenous Peoples and local communities, difficult terrain and remote locations that deter industrial activity all contribute to forest integrity remaining high in these places.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Where is forest integrity at risk?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Hardly any forest on Earth is wholly free of human influence. The index shows that 31% of all forests worldwide experience easily observed direct pressures from infrastructure, agriculture or recent tree cover loss, while a further 60% experience some degree of human impact through edge effects and fragmentation. Over 25% are classified as low integrity. &nbsp;</p>



<p>As a result of a history of adverse human modification, low-integrity forests are now prevalent in many regions, including west and central Europe, the southeastern United States, mainland Southeast Asia, the Andes, West Africa, much of China and India, and the Atlantic Forests of Brazil. These low-integrity forests may be dominated by planted trees, including monoculture stands and agroforestry.&nbsp;</p>



<p>But it’s not just the vast expanse of low integrity forests that warrant concern. Many large areas with high-integrity forests are also experiencing <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/blog/data-and-research/global-tree-cover-loss-data-2020/" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">high rates of tree cover loss</a> and degradation, particularly in Brazil and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. </p>



<p>In 2020 alone, these two countries lost 1.7 million hectares and 0.5 million hectares of primary forest, respectively. High-integrity forests are not necessarily legally protected from development; they can be highly threatened by encroaching human activities. Less than half of forests in every biome have high integrity, and of these, only a quarter are located in legally protected areas.&nbsp;</p>



<p>Governments and other actors must protect and monitor the world’s remaining high-integrity and medium-integrity forests, and protect and restore areas of low integrity.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">Why does forest integrity get less attention than deforestation?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>Deforestation is easier to measure than integrity. While there have been substantial improvements in our ability to monitor forest loss and gain in the past decade, consistent monitoring of forest integrity has proven more elusive until now.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>In recent years, pioneering maps of <a href="https://www.globalforestwatch.org/map/?map=eyJkYXRhc2V0cyI6W3siZGF0YXNldCI6ImludGFjdC1mb3Jlc3QtbGFuZHNjYXBlcyIsIm9wYWNpdHkiOjEsInZpc2liaWxpdHkiOnRydWUsImxheWVycyI6WyJpbnRhY3QtZm9yZXN0LWxhbmRzY2FwZXMiXX0seyJkYXRhc2V0IjoicG9saXRpY2FsLWJvdW5kYXJpZXMiLCJsYXllcnMiOlsiZGlzcHV0ZWQtcG9saXRpY2FsLWJvdW5kYXJpZXMiLCJwb2xpdGljYWwtYm91bmRhcmllcyJdLCJvcGFjaXR5IjoxLCJ2aXNpYmlsaXR5Ijp0cnVlfV19" target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">intact forest landscapes</a> and wilderness areas have identified tracts of high integrity, but because they use a binary classification, they cannot tell us about the variation in integrity outside the most intact areas. </p>



<p>Technical challenges and lack of data have historically made it difficult to monitor the nuances of forest integrity, especially since activities like selective logging are difficult to detect in satellite imagery, and the forest canopy obscures many activities that are harmful to forests.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>The Forest Landscape Integrity Index accounts for this nuance at a global scale for the first time by estimating integrity along a spectrum. We can expect further advances in mapping and monitoring forest integrity as datasets and processing capabilities continue to improve.&nbsp;</p>



<h2 class="wp-block-heading">What can we do to protect high-integrity forests and restore other forests?&nbsp;</h2>



<p>While policy targets for deforestation are usually precise and ambitious, targets for degradation and forest integrity are often vague or absent entirely. The new data provide a transparent and credible tool that policymakers and other decision-makers can use to set quantified targets, create evidence-based plans, enhance monitoring, and retain and restore the ecological integrity of forests. </p>



<p>For example, governments could create and report on measurable, time-bound goals for maintaining or enhancing forest integrity within treaties such as the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, countries’ Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement and several UN Sustainable Development Goals.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Setting such policy goals can encourage governments and other stakeholders to invest in better forest management and restoration. They can formally recognize high-integrity forests, prioritize them in spatial planning, and place them under effective management schemes, such as through designated protected areas or Indigenous control. </p>



<p>Decision-makers can also identify low- and medium-integrity areas and target them for more sustainable management and/or restoration.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>In parallel, corporate zero-deforestation commitments must go further to incorporate and monitor forest integrity in businesses’ supply chains. Zero-deforestation commitments do not address the problem of declining forest integrity so long as it falls short of outright deforestation.&nbsp;&nbsp;</p>



<p>Keeping healthy, high-integrity forests functioning at their full potential can be a key part of the solution to global climate, biodiversity, inequality and health crises. We’ll lose many of these important ecosystem services if only degraded, low-integrity forests are left standing. Keeping global commitments such as the recent <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/what-cop26-means-forests-climate#:~:text=What%20Was%20Promised%20on%20Forests,and%20maintaining%20healthy%20ecosystem%20services." target="_blank" rel="noreferrer noopener">Glasgow Leaders' Declaration on Forests</a> within reach means we need to incorporate both deforestation <em>and</em> integrity into policy planning. &nbsp;</p>



<hr> 

<div class="attribute" style="”padding-bottom:" 10px;”=""> 
 

Originally appeared on <a href="https://www.wri.org/insights/why-preserving-forest-integrity-preventing-deforestation" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">WRI Insights</a>. 


 

</div> 

 

<hr>



<style type="text/css"></style>

Preserving forest integrity is as vital as preventing deforestation, but less than half of the world's remaining forests have high integrity.

Importance of Preserving Forest Integrity | Global Forest Watch Blog

Edie Juno

John-Rob Pool


<p>Water is essential to human health and well-being. In cities, leaders strive to provide secure access to clean, safe and affordable water. In rural areas, farmers hope for adequate rain and healthy rivers to produce healthy crops. The COVID-19 pandemic reminds us how <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/04/coronavirus-water-scarcity-hand-washing" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">critical clean water is to health and hygiene</a>, as public health officials have urged frequent handwashing. And yet, the world is on the precipice of a historic global water crisis. Rising temperatures and extreme weather events associated with climate change continue to pressure water systems and strain urban water infrastructure. Some scenarios suggest that by 2025, as many as <a href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr4-2012/" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">1.8 billion people will face water scarcity</a>. </p>



<p>The situation is dire, but one asset is already at our fingertips: forests. Within city limits, across local watersheds and even thousands of miles away, forests alter the movement, quality and availability of water. The world’s urban leaders need to account for the role of forests in securing clean water for residents and the agricultural lands that cities rely on.</p>



<p>The connection between cities, water and forests works at three levels: inner forests, nearby forests and faraway forests. Here’s how each one protects water in cities, no matter how far away:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Urban Forests Assist Stormwater Management</h3>



<p>Urban water woes are not limited to water scarcity. New research from <a href="https://www.wri.org/applications/aqueduct/floods/?p=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" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aqueduct Floods</a> suggests that flooding has caused over <a href="https://www.wri.org/news/2020/04/release-new-data-shows-millions-people-trillions-property-risk-flooding-infrastructure" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">$1 trillion</a> in losses globally since 1980, and cities, often situated near coasts and along rivers, are among the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/urban-flooding" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">most vulnerable</a>.</p>



<p>As a <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/05/3-steps-scaling-nature-based-solutions-climate-adaptation" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature-based solution</a>, urban forests — which include all the trees in an urban area, from street trees to patches of natural and planted forest, as well as the vegetation and soil beneath them — can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6134866/pdf/nihms-1504240.pdf" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">facilitate improved urban water management</a> and reduce the hazards posed by flooding while simultaneously providing other environmental and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1618866716300097" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural co-benefits</a>.</p>



<p>Trees intercept rainfall as water clings to leaves and branches, slowing its journey across the landscape. This reduces the overall volume of surface runoff, curtails soil erosion and increases groundwater recharge. As a result, urban forests mitigate the effects of storms and flooding events on traditional infrastructure like drains and dikes. This also reduces risks from <a href="https://www3.epa.gov/region1/eco/uep/cso.html" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">combined sewage overflows</a>, which threaten the health of communities and aquatic ecosystems. Given the benefits, U.S. cities like <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/with-a-green-makeover-philadelphia-tackles-its-stormwater-problem" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philadelphia</a> and <a href="http://fsprbuhwmilliontrees.nyc.gov/sp/downloads/pdf/nyc_mfra.pdf" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York City</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/28/chinas-sponge-cities-are-turning-streets-green-to-combat-flooding" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">China’s many “sponge cities,”</a> are actively incorporating trees and other green infrastructure to manage stormwater and flooding risks and improve infiltration rates across their cities.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Nearby Forests Protect Water Supplies and Enhance Resilience</strong></h3>



<p>Of the world’s 105 largest cities, <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/15006" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">33 rely heavily on nearby protected forest lands</a> as a primary factor in drinking water availability and quality. Five major cities in the U.S. — New York; Boston; San Francisco; Seattle and Portland, Oregon — <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/18/nyregion/new-york-city-water-filtration.html" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">rely on nearby protected forests</a> instead of mechanical infrastructure to filter their water.</p>



<p>Forested watersheds adjacent to cities affect water quality and availability by <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2017/03/3-surprising-ways-water-depends-healthy-forests" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulating</a> precipitation, evaporation and flows. Trees and other vegetation can improve water quality by preventing erosion, breaking down pollutants and providing shade. Forests and their soils also act like sponges that absorb water when it is plentiful and release it when it is scarce. They do this partly by increasing water infiltration into the soil, helping to recharge vital groundwater supplies.</p>



<p>Studies from WRI suggest that protecting these watershed ecosystems can pay off in countries like Brazil. By protecting water quality and preventing sediment from entering waterways, restoring forests around Rio de Janeiro could help the city avoid <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2018/12/restoring-rio-de-janeiro-s-forests-could-save-79-million-water-treatment-costs" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">$79 million in costs for water treatment</a> and reduce use of chemical products by as much as 4 million tons.</p>



<p>However, not all forests are provide the same benefits. Converting natural grasslands to forests and the use of non-native trees in plantations may reduce surface water yields for decades. In South Africa, for example, <a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africa-needs-a-fresh-approach-to-managing-invasive-trees-like-eucalyptus-126777" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">water-intensive Eucalyptus trees</a> have stressed limited water resources. Conserving existing forests and considering local climate constraints may help to avoid negative unintended consequences.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Faraway Forests Drive Regional and Global Rainfall</strong></h3>



<p>From hundreds of miles away, forests influence precipitation patterns for cities and key agricultural regions. A growing body of research acknowledges the role of tropical forests in creating “<a href="http://www.fao.org/in-action/forest-and-water-programme/news/news-detail/en/c/1190278/" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">flying rivers</a>”: Trees act as giant straws, pulling water from the soil and transpiring it into the air to produce the <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/how-deforestation-affecting-global-water-cycles-climate-change" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">water vapor needed for rainfall</a>, often in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378017300134" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">regions far downwind</a>.</p>



<p>The world’s great tropical forests in the Amazon Basin, the Congo Basin and Southeast Asia play an especially important role in regulating rain. However, the ability of these forests to contribute rainfall is in jeopardy. The world <a href="https://gfw.global/32l4OWP" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">lost 11.9 million hectares (29.4 million acres) of forest in 2019</a> —including 3.8 million hectares (9.4 million acres) of mature tropical rainforest. Cascading, deforestation-driven changes in rainfall could increase drought in urban regions and key farmlands, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2430" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">in the tropics and far beyond</a>.</p>



<p><a href="https://wriorg.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/ending-tropical-deforestation-tropical-forests-climate-change.pdf" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research</a> suggests that large-scale deforestation of the Congo Basin would leave parts of Africa, like the populous Nile Basin and the <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2019/07/congo-basin-deforestation-threatens-food-and-water-supplies-throughout-africa" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sahel</a>, hotter and drier. In Latin America, degradation in the Amazon could lead cities in Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina to experience <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/2/eaat2340.full" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">longer dry seasons and reduced agricultural productivity</a>. &nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Improving Water and Cities By Protecting Forests</strong></h3>



<p>With the <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">majority of the planet’s population inhabiting cities</a>, decisions made within urban boundaries affect these tropical forests. The production of commodities like beef, soy and palm oil drove <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/361/6407/1108" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">nearly 30% of global tree cover loss</a> in recent decades. Urban areas consume <a href="https://www.resourcepanel.org/reports/weight-cities" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">roughly 40 billion tons</a> of materials annually — a number expected to more than double by 2050.</p>



<p>As centers of commerce and culture, cities can stem these losses when municipal governments adopt deforestation-free procurement policies — as governments in <a href="https://www.regnskog.no/en/news/norwegian-state-commits-to-zero-deforestation-1" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norway</a> and <a href="https://foe.org/news/new-california-bill-address-products-linked-deforestation-climate-change/" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">California</a> are exploring — and champion the value of forest conservation. At the same time, corporations can embrace forest-friendly supply chains, using open-source tools like <a href="https://pro.globalforestwatch.org/" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Forest Watch Pro</a>. Many cities, recognizing the connection between forests and water, are acting to support and conserve forests. Members of the <a href="https://cities4forests.com/" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cities4Forests</a> network are working to plan and develop urban green infrastructure, invest in protecting watershed forests and source more forest-friendly commodities. As voters, consumers and ratepayers, city residents have a crucial role to play. Forests protect water for cities, and it is essential that cities step up to protect forests in return.</p>



<hr> 

<div class="attribute" style="”padding-bottom:" 10px;”=""> 
Visit <a href="https://cities4forests.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cities4Forests</a> to learn more about what cities are doing and how you can get involved. 

<p></p>
Originally appeared on <a href="[INSIGHTS URL]" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">WRI Insights</a>. 
 

</div> 

 

<hr>


Forests Near or Far Can Protect Water for Cities

<p>Water is essential to human health and well-being. In cities, leaders strive to provide secure access to clean, safe and affordable water. In rural areas, farmers hope for adequate rain and healthy rivers to produce healthy crops. The COVID-19 pandemic reminds us how <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/04/coronavirus-water-scarcity-hand-washing" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">critical clean water is to health and hygiene</a>, as public health officials have urged frequent handwashing. And yet, the world is on the precipice of a historic global water crisis. Rising temperatures and extreme weather events associated with climate change continue to pressure water systems and strain urban water infrastructure. Some scenarios suggest that by 2025, as many as <a href="http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural-sciences/environment/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr4-2012/" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">1.8 billion people will face water scarcity</a>. </p>



<p>The situation is dire, but one asset is already at our fingertips: forests. Within city limits, across local watersheds and even thousands of miles away, forests alter the movement, quality and availability of water. The world’s urban leaders need to account for the role of forests in securing clean water for residents and the agricultural lands that cities rely on.</p>



<p>The connection between cities, water and forests works at three levels: inner forests, nearby forests and faraway forests. Here’s how each one protects water in cities, no matter how far away:</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading">Urban Forests Assist Stormwater Management</h3>



<p>Urban water woes are not limited to water scarcity. New research from <a href="https://www.wri.org/applications/aqueduct/floods/?p=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" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Aqueduct Floods</a> suggests that flooding has caused over <a href="https://www.wri.org/news/2020/04/release-new-data-shows-millions-people-trillions-property-risk-flooding-infrastructure" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">$1 trillion</a> in losses globally since 1980, and cities, often situated near coasts and along rivers, are among the <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/urban-flooding" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">most vulnerable</a>.</p>



<p>As a <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2020/05/3-steps-scaling-nature-based-solutions-climate-adaptation" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">nature-based solution</a>, urban forests — which include all the trees in an urban area, from street trees to patches of natural and planted forest, as well as the vegetation and soil beneath them — can <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6134866/pdf/nihms-1504240.pdf" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">facilitate improved urban water management</a> and reduce the hazards posed by flooding while simultaneously providing other environmental and <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1618866716300097" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">cultural co-benefits</a>.</p>



<p>Trees intercept rainfall as water clings to leaves and branches, slowing its journey across the landscape. This reduces the overall volume of surface runoff, curtails soil erosion and increases groundwater recharge. As a result, urban forests mitigate the effects of storms and flooding events on traditional infrastructure like drains and dikes. This also reduces risks from <a href="https://www3.epa.gov/region1/eco/uep/cso.html" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">combined sewage overflows</a>, which threaten the health of communities and aquatic ecosystems. Given the benefits, U.S. cities like <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/with-a-green-makeover-philadelphia-tackles-its-stormwater-problem" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Philadelphia</a> and <a href="http://fsprbuhwmilliontrees.nyc.gov/sp/downloads/pdf/nyc_mfra.pdf" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">New York City</a>, as well as <a href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/28/chinas-sponge-cities-are-turning-streets-green-to-combat-flooding" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">China’s many “sponge cities,”</a> are actively incorporating trees and other green infrastructure to manage stormwater and flooding risks and improve infiltration rates across their cities.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Nearby Forests Protect Water Supplies and Enhance Resilience</strong></h3>



<p>Of the world’s 105 largest cities, <a href="https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/15006" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">33 rely heavily on nearby protected forest lands</a> as a primary factor in drinking water availability and quality. Five major cities in the U.S. — New York; Boston; San Francisco; Seattle and Portland, Oregon — <a href="https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/18/nyregion/new-york-city-water-filtration.html" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">rely on nearby protected forests</a> instead of mechanical infrastructure to filter their water.</p>



<p>Forested watersheds adjacent to cities affect water quality and availability by <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2017/03/3-surprising-ways-water-depends-healthy-forests" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">regulating</a> precipitation, evaporation and flows. Trees and other vegetation can improve water quality by preventing erosion, breaking down pollutants and providing shade. Forests and their soils also act like sponges that absorb water when it is plentiful and release it when it is scarce. They do this partly by increasing water infiltration into the soil, helping to recharge vital groundwater supplies.</p>



<p>Studies from WRI suggest that protecting these watershed ecosystems can pay off in countries like Brazil. By protecting water quality and preventing sediment from entering waterways, restoring forests around Rio de Janeiro could help the city avoid <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2018/12/restoring-rio-de-janeiro-s-forests-could-save-79-million-water-treatment-costs" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">$79 million in costs for water treatment</a> and reduce use of chemical products by as much as 4 million tons.</p>



<p>However, not all forests are provide the same benefits. Converting natural grasslands to forests and the use of non-native trees in plantations may reduce surface water yields for decades. In South Africa, for example, <a href="https://theconversation.com/south-africa-needs-a-fresh-approach-to-managing-invasive-trees-like-eucalyptus-126777" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">water-intensive Eucalyptus trees</a> have stressed limited water resources. Conserving existing forests and considering local climate constraints may help to avoid negative unintended consequences.</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Faraway Forests Drive Regional and Global Rainfall</strong></h3>



<p>From hundreds of miles away, forests influence precipitation patterns for cities and key agricultural regions. A growing body of research acknowledges the role of tropical forests in creating “<a href="http://www.fao.org/in-action/forest-and-water-programme/news/news-detail/en/c/1190278/" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">flying rivers</a>”: Trees act as giant straws, pulling water from the soil and transpiring it into the air to produce the <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/how-deforestation-affecting-global-water-cycles-climate-change" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">water vapor needed for rainfall</a>, often in <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378017300134" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">regions far downwind</a>.</p>



<p>The world’s great tropical forests in the Amazon Basin, the Congo Basin and Southeast Asia play an especially important role in regulating rain. However, the ability of these forests to contribute rainfall is in jeopardy. The world <a href="https://gfw.global/32l4OWP" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">lost 11.9 million hectares (29.4 million acres) of forest in 2019</a> —including 3.8 million hectares (9.4 million acres) of mature tropical rainforest. Cascading, deforestation-driven changes in rainfall could increase drought in urban regions and key farmlands, <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate2430" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">in the tropics and far beyond</a>.</p>



<p><a href="https://wriorg.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/ending-tropical-deforestation-tropical-forests-climate-change.pdf" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Research</a> suggests that large-scale deforestation of the Congo Basin would leave parts of Africa, like the populous Nile Basin and the <a href="https://www.wri.org/blog/2019/07/congo-basin-deforestation-threatens-food-and-water-supplies-throughout-africa" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Sahel</a>, hotter and drier. In Latin America, degradation in the Amazon could lead cities in Brazil, Paraguay, Uruguay and Argentina to experience <a href="https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/4/2/eaat2340.full" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">longer dry seasons and reduced agricultural productivity</a>. &nbsp;</p>



<h3 class="wp-block-heading"><strong>Improving Water and Cities By Protecting Forests</strong></h3>



<p>With the <a href="https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">majority of the planet’s population inhabiting cities</a>, decisions made within urban boundaries affect these tropical forests. The production of commodities like beef, soy and palm oil drove <a href="https://science.sciencemag.org/content/361/6407/1108" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">nearly 30% of global tree cover loss</a> in recent decades. Urban areas consume <a href="https://www.resourcepanel.org/reports/weight-cities" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">roughly 40 billion tons</a> of materials annually — a number expected to more than double by 2050.</p>



<p>As centers of commerce and culture, cities can stem these losses when municipal governments adopt deforestation-free procurement policies — as governments in <a href="https://www.regnskog.no/en/news/norwegian-state-commits-to-zero-deforestation-1" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Norway</a> and <a href="https://foe.org/news/new-california-bill-address-products-linked-deforestation-climate-change/" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">California</a> are exploring — and champion the value of forest conservation. At the same time, corporations can embrace forest-friendly supply chains, using open-source tools like <a href="https://pro.globalforestwatch.org/" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Global Forest Watch Pro</a>. Many cities, recognizing the connection between forests and water, are acting to support and conserve forests. Members of the <a href="https://cities4forests.com/" target="_blank" aria-label="undefined (opens in a new tab)" rel="noreferrer noopener">Cities4Forests</a> network are working to plan and develop urban green infrastructure, invest in protecting watershed forests and source more forest-friendly commodities. As voters, consumers and ratepayers, city residents have a crucial role to play. Forests protect water for cities, and it is essential that cities step up to protect forests in return.</p>



<hr> 

<div class="attribute" style="”padding-bottom:" 10px;”=""> 
Visit <a href="https://cities4forests.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">Cities4Forests</a> to learn more about what cities are doing and how you can get involved. 

<p></p>
Originally appeared on <a href="[INSIGHTS URL]" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer">WRI Insights</a>. 
 

</div> 

 

<hr>

Water is essential to human health and well-being. Forests can help provide cities with secure access to clean, safe and affordable water.

Forests Near or Far Can Protect Water for Cities | GFW Blog